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Mahadevi Durga

The Great Goddess Durga

“I am the power that manifests everywhere
I am life, I am death,” says the Mother (Tewari 31)

The Great Goddess of the Hindu tradition is Durga. She is Sakti (cosmic energy), everything in all parts of the universe (Tewari 8). She is worshipped throughout India in various forms and known by an incredibly extensive list of names. These names and representations will be explored here, along with the myths which surround the Goddess. Associated with the gods of the Hindu pantheon she is an unstoppable force known for slaying demons and spurring the gods into action. There are early depictions of feminine figures from the Indus Valley Civilization of the first/second century BCE, but there is no concrete proof that these figurines and icons are goddesses comparable to Durga. Although the Vedas mention goddesses, there is no overwhelmingly powerful feminine figure which stands out as the Great Goddess (Chitgopekar 59).

Other Hindu texts such as the Puranas and the Epics are more instrumental in depicting the cult of the Goddess, which thrives among devotees in almost every village, town and city in India (Chitgopekar 4). Puranas such as the Kalika Purana and the Skanda Purana articulate the legends that give Durga dimension and an aura of strength. The Mahabharata is the earliest text that describes Durga as the slayer of Mahisha the buffalo-demon (Chitgopekar 62). Although Valmiki’s original Ramayana depicted Rama worshipping the Sun seeking aid in his quest against Ravana, Krttivasa’s Bengali version describes Rama worshipping Durga in the sun’s stead (Chitgopekar 61), invoking the Great Goddess to aid him in his battle. The most authoritative text on Durga however is the Devi Mahatmya, a fifth or sixth century CE text from the Markandeya Purana. This compilation can be considered to be raising Durga’s position within the Hindu sectarian traditions (Chitgopekar 70). These texts describe the origin of the Great Goddess Durga. This deity is similar to others in the Hindu pantheon with a great variety of physical representations, names and myths, which will be explored here.
Reading the Hindu texts in search of Durga’s stories requires one to have a better knowledge of her names, so she can be recognized. The Goddess’ names vary in origin and meaning and all lend us insight into such aspects as her role to her devotees, how she was created, what exploits she has undertaken, and her physical forms. The name Durga means “she who is difficult to go against” (Chitgopekar 76) [Chitgopekar notes that scholars translate her name differently, but all denote that she is an incredible, almost unimaginable force]. The name Durga can also be attributed to some of her exploits. As Chitgopekar explains, the Skanda Purana indicates that the name of Durga is given to the goddess Parvati, consort of Siva, when she kills the demon Durga. A myth from the Devi Mahatmya, however, states that the Goddess acquires this name when she slays the demon Durgama. Her qualities as a goddess are denoted by her names as well. Durga is often called “Mother of the Universe” or “Universal Mother” (Dutta 17). As Uma, Siva’s consort, she is seen as a protector and a mother figure. The name Kali identifies the opposite, and is revered as a destructive force. Along with others of the same nature, these names indicate that “the Goddess Durga embodies within herself three forces: Creative, Preservative and Destructive. They are her three primal qualities: Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas” (Dutta 18).

One of Durga’s most widely recognized roles is as a great demon killer, and has been given names appropriate to that role as well. She is known as Mahisasuramardini, the buffalo trampler, which Chitgopekar describes as her “most well-known epithet.” (13)Her demon killing forms relate to the names she is given in various myths. Names such as Parvati and Himavati, daughter of the mountain (Chitogopekar 79), introduce certain stories of her creation that are written in the Hindu texts. Alternatively, names such as Dasabhuja, ten armed one (Chitogopekar 79), or Trinayani Durga, three-eyed Durga (Dutta 16), provide us immediately with a mental image of the Goddess. The Goddess’ multiple forces are also revealed in her imagery. At times called Gauri, the fair complexioned one, we think of her more compassionate side, whereas the names Kali and Shyama, the dark complexioned one, denote her terrifying destructive persona. The nomenclature of the Goddess indicates a rich, complex and detailed history. The legends and representations of the Goddess indicated by her names reveal the intensity and importance of her powers; it can be said with certainty that the role of the Goddess in the Hindu pantheon is not one to be overlooked.

Durga as Mahisasuramardini (Crusher of the Buffalo Demon) (Bhaktapur, Nepal)

Durga’s iconic representations are also important tools for understanding her power. A popular image of Durga is that of her in her ten-armed form killing the buffalo demon Mahisa with one leg over her lion. The Goddess holds weapons from different male gods, linking their power to her. Chitgopekar and Dutta disagree on some of the weapons they list as being in her possession. Dutta’s list includes Siva’s trident, Agni’s dart, Indra’s thunderbolt, Varuna’s conch-shell, Vayu’s bow, Kubera’s club, Yama’s iron rod, Vasuki’s snake and Surya’s shield and sword (Dutta 12). Chitgopekar agrees with Siva, Agni, and Indra’s contributions but adds that Durga held a string of beads and a water pot from Brahma, Visnu’s discus, an axe from Visvakarman, a cup of wine from Kubera [The Great Goddess is depicted as drinking from this cup of wine regularly while in battle with Mahisa. (Chitgopekar 25)] and claims that Varuna’s gift was not a shell but a noose instead. Surya’s gift is also disputed; Chitgopekar asserts that the gift from this Sun God was instead the rays of the sun being on all pores of her skin (Chitgopekar 19). These gifts are an important part of Durga’s story. By endowing her with their emblems the gods of the Hindu tradition show that they place their faith in her to destroy the demon Mahisa who threatened them and whom they could not overcome. Part of Durga’s physical representation is that she is beautiful beyond measure. This beauty is unparalleled (Dutta 12) and attracted some demons to their ultimate death. As discussed previously, the Goddess incarnates in different forms, including Kali, one of her most worshipped shapes. Kali is dark skinned, and has four arms. Two arms hold weapons to “frighten the demons and inflict punishments,” while the other two offer blessings to her followers (Tewari 30). Kali’s tongue is dripping with blood which indicates her role as the goddess of destruction. However, keeping with the theme that the Great Goddess encompasses all creation, preservation and destruction, we are reminded by Kali’s tenderness, portrayed by her feminine form, that “destruction is the beginning of creation” (Tewari 30).
Durga fulfills a great many roles, the three most important being the Creator, the Preserver and the Destroyer of the universe. All other duties she has can be categorized within these three. Vaisno Devi is regarded by some as the ultimate form of this creative Sakti. She is the power that drives the Gods into action (Chitgopekar 49). She is linked to the three great Gods of the Hindu tradition and their great power. Named after the gods with whom she is associated, the Great Goddess can be referred to as the creative force Brahmani, the preserving force Vaisnavi, or the destructive force Rudrani (Dutta 18). Another important role of Durga is that of a protector for her worshippers. In the Skanda Purana the Goddess states that her followers would be spared from the torments of life by invoking or worshipping Her (Dutta 4). One major event dedicated to the worship of the Great Goddess is the Durga Puja. Also known as the Durgotsava or Dasahara, it is celebrated in the Bengal month of Asvina which correlates with the season of autumn. The celebration culminates with the victories of good over evil, principally the triumph of Durga over Mahisa and Rama over Ravana, and signifies the defeat of internal enemies by the devotee (Chitgopekar 102). Durga’s victory against Mahisa has been taken to signify not just the fight between gods and demons or good versus evil, but also the concepts of truth and mental illumination triumphing over falsehood and ignorance (Dutta 22). The Goddess thus has a role in aiding people in finding illumination, a goal in the Hindu tradition. Durga plays many other roles in the lives of her followers including bestowing divine wisdom and spiritual wealth (Dutta 21). Durga has great meaning to people of all castes because her multitude of roles allows her to deal not only with the expansive concepts such as the creation of the universe, but also deals with the internal struggle of all people.

Durga, the Great Goddess is incredibly popular because she has the ultimate power. Her forms and myths denote a deity that can be considered almost unparalleled in strength and thus deserves the respect and worship she is given throughout India. The study of Durga is so rich and detailed however that it requires to be researched with much more depth and dedication to have a complete understanding and respect for the Great Goddess.

References

Chitgopekar, Nilima (2003) The Book of Durga. New Delhi: Penguin Books India

Tewari, Lt. Col. Naren (1988) The Mother Goddess Vaishno Devi. New Delhi: Lancer International

Dutta, Abhijit (2003) Mother Durga: An Icon of Community & Culture. Calcutta: Readers Service


Related Readings

Kinsley, David (1986) Hindu Goddesses: Visions of Divine Feminine in the Hindu Tradition. Berkeley: University of California Press

Foulston, Lynn (2002) At the Feet of the Goddess: The Divine Feminine in Local Hindu Religion. Portland: Sussex Academic Press

Pintchman, Tracy (1994) The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition. Albany: State University of New York Press

Jagadiswarananda, Swami (1953) The Devi-Mahatmya or Sri Durga-Saptasati: (700 mantras on Sri Durga). Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math

Dilwali, Ashok & Malhotra, Sanjana (2001) Ma Vaishno Devi. New Delhi: K.G.M. International


Related Websites


http://www.pantheon.org/areas/mythology/asia/hindu/articles.html

http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/sakti

http://www.sanatansociety.org/hindu_gods_and_goddesses/durga.htm

http://www.shivashakti.com/durga.htm

Related Topics


Kali
Laksmi
The Devi Mahatmya
Sakti
Durga Puja
Puja
Ramayana
Mahabharata
Siva
Brahma
Visnu
Skanda Puran

Mahisa

Written by Kristina Larkin (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

a. Dharma and the Dharma Sastras

The Laws of Manu (On Women)

The Laws of Manu are one of the three major Dharma Sastras whose authorship in attributed to Manu, a Hindu Lawmaker (Neufeldt 144; Kumar 207). The text is also known as Manusmrti or Manavadharmasastra and is often referred to as simply Manu. The Laws of Manu are comprehensive set of codices that outline dharmic practices; many scholars refer to them as legal codices (Monius 334). This particular text is widely used by orthodox Hindus as instruct their day to day lives. This practice became even more wide spread after the British came into power in India as the Laws of Manu were implemented at a state level as a way of handling legal issues with the Hindu population (Mitra, 78).

The Laws of Manu have often been criticized as it appears to serve at continuing to propagate inequality within Hindu Society. This is perhaps the case with some practices. However it is important to recognise that the text also has its strengths. Mitra argues throughout her piece Human Rights in Hinduism that the practice of dharma, which is the focus of the Laws of Manu, focuses on justice and thus it does in fact consider the rights of individuals by prescribing dharmic practices. The text outlines the ways in which individuals should protect their families and conduct themselves in public to outline a properly functioning Hindu society.

Like many religious texts, one must consider that interpretations of the verses contained within the Laws of Manu are simply that, interpretations. Different groups and individuals will focus their attention on a particular section of the Manusmirti while completely ignoring others that may contradict their viewpoint. This is particularly present when considering the treatment of women in Hinduism.

Kumar argues throughout his article Manu: The Meaning of Svatantrya and Its Implications for Women’s Freedom that many of the codices in The Laws of Manu itself are actually put in place to protect women. Unfortunately, throughout history women have been particularly vulnerable to rape and other forms of attack and thus, Manu devoted much of his ninth chapter to the proper treatment of women within one’s family (Buhler). Kumar also points out that there are only two main areas where Manu prescribed the control of women’s actions: “… (1) attachments to worldly or sensual objects and (2) sexual relationships with men of inferior classes.” (Kumar, 213). Despite this, Kumar does not deny that in practice the Laws of Manu have also caused the grave mistreatment of Hindu women as well. If one observes verses 147 through 149 of chapter five of the Laws of Manu, it is noted that Manu also prescribed that women should never do any activity independently or try to separate herself from her male family members (Buhler). This may be one explanation for why the advancement of women in the workforce in India has been so difficult. By attempting to independently contribute the household or to support oneself as women would imply that you are directly disobeying the religious doctrine.

The only apparent time that a woman obtains any real power is when she becomes the senior married woman in a household. It is then that other women are expected to turn to her. However even this status has its limits. According to the Manusmrti the wife must still obey her male relatives, which in this case would mean chiefly her husband. So what does a woman do when her husband dies? If a Hindu woman is lucky she will have other male relatives who will care for her, in particular her sons.

A husband is a Hindu woman’s main support explains Wadley (92). Once a woman becomes a widow not only is she viewed as a burden economically, but due to scriptures (for example Laws of Manu chapter 3, verse 57) they are also viewed as a liability. If a woman does not have a son to look after her after her husband’s death a woman is almost guaranteed to suffer many hardships. Especially in the lower classes women often have difficulty supporting themselves as Manu does not encourage an independent woman. Some orthodox Hindus go so far as to argue that a widow is half dead herself as her husband was half of her being (Wadley 105). This leads to even further harsh treatment as there is a sense of becoming untouchable. Chapter three of the Laws of Manu touches on this at several points. When discussing who should not be invited to or served food at the ceremony for the dead several references are made to sons of widows and remarried women and men who have taken their older brother’s place; i.e. a younger brother who has married his deceased brother’s widow (Doniger 57-62). It is quite clear that in the context of the ceremony of dead, individuals associated with widows are not to be thought of highly.

Doniger (xliv) points out that the Laws of Manu appears full of contradictions, but really is a series of rules and a list of their exceptions. Part of the text actually does focus on the good treatment of women, as is seen in chapter 3 verses 51 through 63. These verses focus both on the necessity of women’s happiness to a household’s happiness and the proper practice for arranging a daughter’s marriage. In my opinion, verse 51(Doniger 48) shows a respect for women as people because it states, “No learned father should take a bride-price for his daughter, no matter how small, for a man who, out of greed, exacts a bride-price would be selling his child like a pimp.” Throughout the text we see verses like this and then others which appear to knock women down to an inferior level. However, it is important to note that the majority of verses which hold women in a negative light are context specific, and thus it is not the text that has caused injustice to women, but its use outside the context which were outlined.
The Laws of Manu are deeply entrenched in Hindu society. This particular Dharma Sastra is perhaps the most influential religious-legal scripture in existence. Its far reaching influence has been both beneficial and troublesome throughout Hindu history and certainly cannot be discounted within the tradition. However, it is also important to note that the text was compiled between the second century B.C.E. and the second century C.E. thus policies that were once useful and protective must be taken within their historical context and adjusted to the different eras they are used in, in order to prevent undue discrimination and maltreatment.

REFERENCES AND OTHER FURTHER READING

Buhler, Georg (1886) The Laws of Manu Sacred Text of the East. Volume 25.Gloucestershire: Clarendon Press.

Doniger, Wendy (1991) The Laws of Manu. Toronto: Penguin Books Canada.

Kumar, Sanjay (2006) “Manu: The Meaning of Svatantrya and Its Implications for Women’s Freedom.” The Journal of Religious Studies, 34, 207-223

Mitra, Kana (1982) “Human Rights in Hinduism.” Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 19, 77-84

Monius, Anne E. (2005) “Origin of Hindu Ethics.” In The Blackwell Companion to Religious Ethics (William Schweiker, Editor) Oxford: Blackwell Publishing

Neufeldt, Ronald W. (2001) “Justice in Hinduism.” In Spiritual Roots of Restorative Justice (Michael L. Hadley, Editor) Albany: State University of Albany Press

Olivelle, Patrick (2004) “Manu and the Arthasastra A Study in Sastric Intertextuality.” Journal of Indian Philosophy, 32, 281-291

Sharma, Pajendra Nath (1980) Ancient India According to Manu. Delhi: Nag Publishers

Wadley, Susan (1995) “No Longer a Wife: Widows in Rural North India.” In The Margins of Hindu Marriage (Lindsey Harlan & Paul B. Cartwright, Editors) New York: Oxford University Press.

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Hindu Widows

Untouchables

Ancient India

Dharma Sastra

Arthasastra

Religion in Society

Noteworthy Website Related to Topic

http://www.sacred-texts.com

http://www.happyvalues.com/ebooks/he20061432/HinduismEbook0509.pdf

Written by Rachelle Lamoureux (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

Khmer (Cambodian) Temples

Angkor Wat

In 1861 Henri Mouhaut , a French naturalist, was trekking through the jungles of northwestern Cambodia when he stumbled upon the ruins of the ancient Khmer civilization and a great temple, Angkor Wat (Fujioka 7). Located just east of Siam Reap, Angkor Wat was one of the main temples of the Khmer empire which ruled much of what is now Cambodia and Thailand, and parts of Vietnam from the 500s C.E.. until 1431 (Srivastava 20-30, Stone 1364). Angkor Wat was built during the reign of Suryavarman II (1114-1163) and dedicated to the Hindu god Visnu (Fujioka 14). It was only after Mouhaut’s discovery that Angkor Wat was made known to the West, but he was not the first to “discover” it after its decline in 1431. In the 17th century both the Chinese and Spanish have records indicating that they had come upon this ancient kingdom (Fujioka 7). Angkor Wat is a place surrounded in mystery and magnificence not only it its aesthetics, but also in its history and religion.

The history of the Khmer people is full of myth and legend. One legend (Reed 210-212) states that Prince Cambu, who was forced out of India after a severe drought had overcome his land and people, had made his way to the mighty Mekong river. Here he met a local man who has found a grain of rice, and the Prince had a vision of how this rice will conquer the jungle, and how a new race would be “raised up for the glory and worship of the gods” (Reed 210). Prince Cambu went back with the local man to meet the ruler, The King of the Cobras, in order to set up a space in his land. Prince Cambu married the King’s daughter, the serpent princess. The princess was immortal, so when Cambu died, she married each successor in order for her to look after her children, the Khmers. The sons of Prince Cambu were called Camboga, and they ruled the land called Cambodia.

The serpent Queen in this legend, as Reed points out, plays an important role in both Hinduism and Buddhism (212). The cobra, or Sacred Naga, is featured in many of the carvings and sculptures found in the temples, especially Angkor Wat, and also in Hindu and Buddhist literature.

While the beginning of the Khmers may not be clear, it is thought that Indian culture and language, in the form of the Vedas and Sanskrit, were introduced around the 1st century C.E. (Srivastava 19). While the nobles and aristocracy embraced the new Indian beliefs, the peasants were less inclined to do so. This could be because a king would claim devotion to a particular deity, Siva, Visnu, or even the Buddha, in order to secure power by this divine ruling (Srivastava 15). The first Khmers to come from India were followers of Hinduism, and when they arrived to Cambodia they encountered other religions such as ancestor worship, totem religion, and Theravada Buddhism (Fujioka 16-17). Instead of wiping out the other religions, the Khmers incorporated aspects of the other religions into their own therefore not alienating one group because of differing religious views (Fujioka 17). One of the aspects of Hinduism which was not adapted in Cambodia was the caste system which plays a prominent role in Hinduism in India. Southeast Asian historian John F. Cady notes that this could be due to the fact that Hinduism has a complex cultural basis in India and it is very difficult to transfer as a whole, and therefore only select parts were transfered to Cambodia (Srivastava 37-38).

While the Khamer style of architecture is similar to that of India, Angkor Wat has its own unique design to it (Fujioka 25). It is considered a “precious gem of the Khmer art” and a “masterpiece of architecture” (Srivastava 55). Angkor Wat can be called “Temple of the Royal Castle,” as angkor means “town” and wat means pagoda or temple (Fujioka 22). What was first noticed of Angkor Wat was its five towers. The five towers are said to represent the five peaks of Mount Meru, the abode of Visnu, to whom the temple was dedicated (Srivastava 26, 55). The use of the five towers is not unique to Angkor Wat as many Hindu and Buddhist temples in India and other places around Asia use the same pattern (Fujioka 26-27). The layout of the Angkor Wat has many other Hindu features such as multiple corridors and terraces which are laid out in a explicit geometrical configuration, and displays its “true greatness” (Fujioka 30). Another unique feature of Angkor Wat is the direction of its orientation. All the temples around Angkor face east, but Angkor Wat faces west (Srivastava 59, Fujioka 31). Many explanations have been given for this, one being “it was situated on the east side of the road leading to Angkor Thom” (Fujioka 31), but the exact reason for this may be left with the mystery that is Ankor Wat.

The temple itself is made of laterite and sandstone. The foundation and internal structure is comprised of laterite, a relatively soft stone, but when exposed to sunlight becomes extremely hard (Fujioka 32-33). The laterite was then covered with sandstone which was easier to carve.

Angkor Wat is said to be the greatest Visnu temple (Fujioka 18). Visnu is the Hindu “protector” god, and is often depicted with 4 hands carrying a shell, a club, an iron band, and a lotus stem (Fujioka 17-18). Carvings of Visnu are found all over the temple walls and along the corridors, as are his many incarnations, Rama and Krsna, from the great Hindu epics the Ramanyana and Mahabharata (Fujioka 18).

One of the most detailed reports of the Khmer empire comes from a Chinese traveller, Chow Ta-guan, who visited the region in 1296 (Reed 214). He gives a detailed account of what the ancient empire was like during its most prolific period. Chow Ta-guan notes that the population of Angkor, the main city, was over one million people with many more in the surrounding cities scattered among the rice fields (Reed 214). He observes that while the houses of the people were made of wood harvested from the encircling jungle, the temples were made of stone and delicately decorated with gold and intricate carvings (Reed 214-215). The ornate designs in the stone suggest a background in woodworking, and not masonry; the use of stone in the same manner as wood suggests the same (Reed 215). Chow Ta-guan also mentions that the king had five wives: one chief wife, and four others representing the four cardinal points of a compass (Reed 216). One of the things that strikes him is the amount of times the Khmers bathed, and the frequency of illness, and particularly leprosy. Chow relates the concepts when he says, “excesses in love and abuse of baths is what bring on the illness” (Reed 216). Chow reports of many lepers among the Khmer, and that those with the disease still lived and ate amongst the others, and that the disease was not contagious because the people were habituated with it (Reed 216). The prevalence of disease may be one of the reasons for the downfall of the great empire.

One of the greatest mysteries surrounding the Khmer people and Angkor Wat is what happened to this once great empire. Many have speculated that the Khmer were overtaken by one of its tributaries from Siam after they had been weakened by disease (Reed 229-231). This would not be that far fetched as diseases such as malaria and yellow fever have crippled some of the worlds largest and most powerful empires like that of the Romans and Greeks (Reed 231). What we are left with today is a mystery hidden among the ruins of this great temple surrounded by overgrown jungle and a multitude of monkeys.


REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READINGS

Chandler, David (2008) A History of Cambodia. Boulder: Westview Press.

Coe, Michael D. (2003) Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames and Hudson.

Fujioka, Michio (1972) Angkor Wat. Tokyo: Kodansha International Ltd.

Reed, Alfred C. (1939) “The curse of Angkor.” The Scientific Monthly 48(3), 210-231.

Srivastava, K M (1987) Angkor Wat and Cultural Ties with India. New Delhi: Books & Books.

Stencel, Robert, Fred Gifford, and Eleanor Moron (1976) “Astrology and cosmology at Angkor Wat.” Science, 192, 281-287.

Stone, Richard (2006) “The end of Angkor.” Science, 311, 1364-1368.

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Angkor

Angkor Thom

Cambodia – History

Devaraja

Khmer civilization

Khmer Rouge

Krsna

Mahabharata

Henri Mouhaut

Ramayana

Sacred Naga

Siva

Visnu

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://www.sacredsites.com/asia/cambodia/angkor_wat.html

http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/668

http://www.terragalleria.com/asia/cambodia/angkor-wat/angkor-wat.html

http://www.angkorwat.org/html/history.html

Article written by: Jeremy Koot (March 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

4. Antyesti (Final Sacrifice)

Death and Cremation

Cremation in Hinduism is classified as the last samskara (life cycle rites); the last ritual to perform that concludes a life. Cremation is considered a samskara because it is changing the state of the person from one realm to another; it is viewed as a medium between life and the ancestral realm (pitr-loka). There are many different frameworks as to how the cremation ritual is completed, yet the outcome is always the same. Cremation is an important aspect of Hinduism because it is freeing the spirit from the current world. Sacrifices, transformations, and the knowledge of how to perform the ritual surrounding the cremation are all aspects of this particular samskara.

Knipe, as quoted in Richard Davis’ Cremation and Liberation: The Revision Of A Hindu Ritual states, “ With few exceptions, the Hindu rites at the time of death and the procedures for cremation (antyesti) are fairly uniform throughout the regions of India…This conformity in ritual across vedic, epic, pursnic, and agamic periods, and on into modern practice, is remarkable”
(39). A basic intention of the cremation ritual is to prevent the spirit from coming back and haunting its family. This basic intention can be known as a Preta (spirits that are not properly installed in the ancestral realm) [haunting/harassing the family- this information can be found and expanded upon in the Hinduism eBook (177)]. Death throughout the Hindu tradition is looked upon as dangerous because it is during this time that the body is between cycles of life and rebirth. Weightman states that in Hinduism, the prevailing “fire and its illumination symbolize either the cosmic cycle of creation and dissolution or samsara [To flow together; to wander; the cycle of repeated rebirths], the earthly cycle of birth and death” (1).

Davis further support the notion of birth and death cycles, as stated above by Weightman, by illustrating another aspect of the cremation ritual. This aspect is known as the third birth. Davis argues, “A person is indeed born three times, as follows: First he is born from his mother and father. One whose lot is to sacrifice is born a second time when he performs sacrifice. He is born a third time when he dies, and is placed upon the fire, and he arises again…” (41). Death and cremation are the processes that allow the spirit from the dead body to leave this world and enter the ancestral realm, where the bodies “…receive nourishment through the sraddha [funerary rites] offerings made by his descendants” (Davis 41). Death is not viewed as the final stage in Hinduism; it is merely a transition from one place to another.

Cremation is the main ritual for disposing of a body in Hinduism (Davis 44). “[T]his same basic physical and ritual act of cremation has been very differently conceived and has performed very different functions within different metaphysical frameworks”(Davis 44-45). In other words, although cremation is the preferred method, there are numerous different ways to understand this last samskara (Davis 44). For example, cremation is a path for some into the ancestral realm, while for others, like the Saiva Siddhanta [a group of people who worship the god Siva above all others; Siva centered groups] it is defined as the souls last barrier on the path to moksa [liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth] (Davis 45). In both instances the rituals performed are designed so each individual can be set in the right direction for the next stage of the transformation (Davis 45). Both Weightman and Davis emphasize the importance of the life cycle rites; the importance of death and rebirth in the Hinduism tradition.

Funerary Pyres at Pasupatinath Temple near Kathmandu, Nepal
Funerary Pyres at Pasupatinath Temple near Kathmandu, Nepal

In contradiction with dominant western religions, funerals in the Hindu religion can take place only hours after the death has occurred. The funerals are performed after the purification rites have been performed [purification rituals are performed on the deceased to rid him or her of all impurities before the transformation into the other realm occurs]. However, “[T]he waiting period from ascertained death to the elimination of the corpse by cremation, can extend up to three and a half days” (Filippi 131). This promptness is due in large part to the fact that there is a fear among those close to the deceased that something could happen to the body. This is also why it is now routine to carry the body to the cremation site (Filippi 131).

Royal Cremation in Bali

Once it is certain that the individual has passed away, kinsmen care for the body by first cleaning it and then decorating it. It is at this point in time that the body is transferred to the cremation grounds [cremation grounds are called smasana and are often located outside of the city. More information can be found in Dying the Good Death by Christopher Justice]. Davis describes the intricacies of the beginning of the cremation ritual as follows, “Like any sacrificial terrain, the place of cremation must be ritually constituted. The officiant, preferably the eldest son of the deceased, purifies the ground by sprinkling water, circling the spot counterclockwise…” (45). Once all of this has been completed and the body is facing south [this is done so the deceased is facing the kingdom of Yama; more information can be found in Gian Giuseppe Filippi’s MRYTU: Conecpt of Death In Indian Traditions], the sacrificial wood is brought in and fires are started in three different places around the pyre (Davis 45). The body is then laid upon the pyre with the individual’s personal sacrificial offerings placed around and on the being (Davis 44). Davis provides examples of items placed on the individual by stating how, “The sacrificial spoon [is] in his right hand, the wooden ladle in his left, the wooden stirring sword on his right side, the ladle used in fire oblation on his left…” (45). In accordance with Davis, Filippi states that depending on which class you are from, a certain item will be placed into the individuals hand. For example, if one were born into the Brahmin [priests and scholars] class, a piece of gold is placed in the hand, but if one were born into the vaisya [merchant] class, a jewel would be placed in the hand [more information can be found in Gian Giuseppe Filippi’s MRYTU: Concept of Death In Indian Traditions 137]. Certain items are placed around the body on the pyre because it is these items that the deceased has previously practiced sacrificial rituals with. They are returned back to him during the cremation ritual (Davis 45). Normally the eldest son (the officiate) will then contribute his own offering into the ritual in support of certain gods and a Rg mantra will also be recited while the pyre is lit from the three sacrificial fires (Davis 45). The reason the cremation ritual is often performed by someone the deceased has known is because it is assumed that the individual will undeniably arrive in heaven along with the smoke of the fires if the ritual is performed this way (Davis 45).

Once the cremation has taken place the officiate circles the ritual site three times (in reverse direction) with a jar that sits upon his left shoulder. The officiant will then moisten the ground by drizzling droplets of water and when he reaches a position that is near the head of the dead body, he will break the jar and leave. He will then be followed by the others at the ritual (Davis 45). After the ritual has been performed the individuals who knew the deceased will experience a period of impurity (savasauca). The length of the period of impurity varies depending on how well they knew the deceased. After this is done, the family will then perform the sraddha rites that will ritually place the body into another realm. The reason sraddha is performed is because it replaces the old body that was cremated (Davis 46).

After the cremation ritual, Parry states that “A funeral priest presides over the rituals performed by relatives for the “ghost” of the departed for eleven days after cremation, accepting gifts from the deceased’s family. It is his [funeral priest] job to confer salvation and allow the soul of the departed to “swim across” to the other world” (Gesler and Pierce 1). The rituals that are performed post cremation are just as important as the cremation ritual itself because it is these rituals that send the ghost or spirit of the deceased to the ancestral pitr-loka [world of ancestors] (Gesler and Pierce). This is why eating is seen as an important aspect of the post cremation ritual; the old body must be “eaten” when the soul of the deceased attains a new body (Gesler, Pierce). “The Brahman priest who performs the ceremonies is likened to a medieval European alchemist who, using a philosopher’s stone, can turn base metal into gold, or to the Ganges, which transforms the city’s sewage into holy water” (Gesler and Pierce 1). Cremation rituals and post cremation rituals are equally important.

Cremation Pyres in Varanasi (Harischandra Ghat)

Banaras is thought to be a place in India that is very important for cremation. Thousands upon thousands of bodies are brought there every year to be cremated. In 1989 alone 24,000 bodies were brought in from around the world to be cremated there [more information can be found in Dying The Good Death by Christopher Justice]. It was also found that many will make a one way trip to Banaras to die there and be thrown into the Ganges River (Justice 21). Some families even send the cremated remains to Banaras in order for their loved ones to be placed in the Ganges River; this is common when the whole funeral procession cannot be done there due to external circumstances (Justice 21). Varanasi also holds an extremely elevated position in the eyes of many Hindus for their final resting place. However, no matter where the cremation takes place, the ritual is believed to be equally important.

Bibliography

Davis, Richard (1988) “Cremation and Liberation: The Revision Of A Hindu Ritual”. History of Religions, Vol.27, No. 1, pp.37-53.

Filippi, Gian (1996) MRTYU Concept of Death In Indian Traditions. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.

Gesler, Wilbert M.and Pierce, Margaret (2000) Hindu Varanasi. Geographical Review, Vol. 90 Issue 2. P222, 16p.

Justice, Christopher (1997) Dying the Good Death. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press.

Rodrigues, Hillary (2006) Hinduism The eBook: An Online Introduction. Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books, Ltd.

Related Topics

Antyesti

Moksa

Pitr-loka

Preta

Samsara

Samskara

Shmashana

Sraddha Rites/Rituals

Related Websites

http://www.geocities.com/lamberdar/cremation.html

http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_death.asp

http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/concepts/samskara.asp

http://www.experiencefestival.com/hindu_rituals_dictionary

http://www.hindugateway.com/library/rituals/

Written by Rachel Jose (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

c. Karma, Samsara, and Reincarnation, C. Karma, Time, and Cosmology

Reincarnation and Karma

The belief in rebirth and various realms is a common ideology in Hinduism. According to Hinduism a soul is reincarnated again and again, undergoing many experiences, until it achieves perfection and unites as one with the divine. This idea of rebirth is referred to as reincarnation, that death relates only to the physical body but the soul continues on and is reborn into another body, human, animal or sometimes even a vegetable (Wadia 145). This continuing worldly existence is called samsara, which literally means “to wander” or “to flow together,” and thus refers to the cycle of repeated births (Rodrigues 94). Reincarnation is never a stand-alone doctrine; rather it is dictated by the law of karma. The word karma is derived from the ancient Sanskrit language of India, which literally means to “work” or “to act” (Garrett 37). Karma stands for all activity, motion or change which the world experiences, and thus the entire world is subject to the law of that which is karma (Singh 11). It is the law of the cosmos and the path leading to the absolute reality, Brahman. The idea that one’s actions have consequences in this life or the next and on subsequent rebirths, developed during the Upanisad period. It is in the Upanisad stories, for example that of the great sage Yajnavalkya, that the idea of reincarnation emerges (Wadia 146). Since then it has become a core ideology in the whole of India. Karma thus sets up a world of justice whereby every action has its outcome, whether good or bad. [For more interesting facts on karma and rebirth in classical Indian traditions see O’Flaherty (1980)]. It is difficult to write a paper on such a topic as reincarnation, as it takes on diverse meanings to individual Hindus. This paper attempts to only give a broad and general sense of the doctrine of reincarnation and karma.

In certain schools of Hindu metaphysics, the true identity of the self, the true Self, is not limited to the physical body; rather it is of a spiritual essence which is subject to rebirth when the current body possessed dies. This spiritual essence undergoes a chain of rebirths into many different bodies, forms, and personalities that are all just temporary vehicles of the true self, until one finally achieves liberation, moksa (Garrett 18). One can only achieve moksa through realizing this so called “true self” (or atman) and renouncing this worldly life. This would entail embodying the Dharma ideals of Hinduism so that you build good karma, and instead of coming back as say an animal or a lower class Hindu, you could become a god. [Singh (1981) explores more on the concept of Dharma]. It is important to note that Karma Yoga from the Bhagavad Gita takes a bit of a different stance then that of orthodox views on reincarnation and karma; in that it states that anyone, no matter what class, can be liberated. Even a householder can achieve liberation through self-realization. Moksa can be achieved simply by doing the right thing, in practicing your duties and with interaction in everyday societal life, as long as one avoids attachment to the fruits of the action; that is one should not be concerned with success or failure. Basically one should perform their duty while at the same time renouncing the world (Rodrigues 250). [For more on this topic of Karma yoga see Singh (1981)].

The idea of karma and reincarnation provides one with motivation to be better, or as some may say “fighting the good fight.” Being selfless in action, doing good to/for others, performing duties, practicing rituals, obeying class systems, is all a part in building good karma and seeking liberation in the Hinduism view. Karma can also present a solution to the everyday question of why good people sometimes suffer, or why bad people seem to get away with things (Wadia 145). Instead of feeling like the world is unfair and being confused as to why all this would happen, one need only to look at the ideas of reincarnation and karma, and see that life is everything but unfair. This allows people to view suffering, misfortune, their current position in society, or even the way they look (i.e. their appearance), as consequences to their actions. In this sense it promotes one to take responsibility for their action. But it is important to realize that samsara, karma and reincarnation are not to be viewed as a burden from which to flee. Rather these are doctrines that promote growth, education and opportunities to learn from mistakes (Neufeldt 16).

The idea of reincarnation is not limited to Hinduism, it can be found in other faiths (e.g. Buddhism) and it touches some who do not even relate to a specific religion. But it is important to note that reincarnation takes on different meanings in relation to different faiths and cultures. For example, Henry Ford spoke on the importance of reincarnation theory to his life by stating: “I adopted the theory of reincarnation when I was twenty-six…Religion offered nothing to the point…Even work could not give me complete satisfaction. Work is futile if we cannot utilize the experience collected in one life in the next. When I discovered Reincarnation …time was no longer limited. I was no longer a slave to the clock…the discovery of Reincarnation put my mind at ease…” (Garrett 22). In Henry Ford’s case the idea of reincarnation is not from a religious perspective, but more of an avoidance of the idea of death and an opportunity to continue in the enjoyment of this worldly life. He looks forward to being reincarnated again and again, not to reunite with any god or for liberation of any kind, like in the case of Hindus, but for the mere pleasure of continuing on in this world and basking in its enjoyment. This is the appeal of reincarnation to some, in that it is a kind of way to escape the fears of death in hopes of being reborn over and over again, providing a kind of immortality. This is one way to look at the doctrine. But for Hindus reincarnation as an escape from the reality of death tends to take away from the beauty of the doctrine to begin with. The doctrine, in Hinduism, was not build on such principles; to hope for an eternal worldly life is to never realize the true self.

The doctrine of reincarnation is not itself difficult to understand, but the way in which people believe it is what makes for a more challenging task. More often than not there are differing views, as with any faith, on how reincarnation works in Hinduism and in many other religions and cultures adopting the doctrine. There are typically two ways in which one understands concepts in religion, literally or metaphorically (Garrett 18). And the question becomes should reincarnation be taken literally? Or should it be taken in a more metaphorical sense? There may be some dangers to taking the concept of karma and reincarnation too literally. The idea of reincarnation has found expression in India not as a metaphor, but as a metaphysical certainty. Reincarnation has justified social disparities and misery as being due to bad karma (Garrett 20).

Some controversy has surrounded certain practices in India as being social consequences to the doctrine of reincarnation and karma. For example, the caste system, varna, in India is well known to be firmly established to this day as a possible by-product of karma and reincarnation. There are four classes within the caste system, with the priestly class (i.e. Brahmin class) at the high end of the scale, who would represent good karma in action. Then there are the lowest of all lows, those who do not even get grouped into the caste system, but rather are the outcastes of society. The untouchables (or Candalas) represent the lowest end of the scale in the caste system, and embody bad karma in action. Because karma states that one pays consequences for action from past lives, it has provided some with the mentality that the untouchables deserve everything they get. In this sense, some believe that reincarnation and karma have increased tensions in India between the different classes, and justified mistreatment of individuals. To illustrate the point, Tom O’Neil says (from an issue of National Geographic): “During the winter I spent in India, hardly a day passed that I didn’t hear or read of acid thrown in a boy’s face, or a wife raped in front of her husband, or some other act whose provocation was simply that an Untouchable didn’t know his or her place” (Garrett 71). Here it is evident that the cultural manifestation of karma in India is very different from the formal terms of the theory (Garrett 58). These tragic outcomes have been explained by some as simply a tragic misunderstanding of reincarnation and karma. Swami Shivananda tries to clear these misconceptions: “Caste is a question of character. Varna is not the color of the skin, but the color of one’s character or quality,” (Garrett 71). Reincarnation and karma need not necessarily be linked to the caste system, as stated previously; in karma yoga untouchables can seek moksa just like a Brahmin can. Hindu texts have offered different ways to looking at the concept of reincarnation and karma, leaving much room for different interpretations.

The doctrine of reincarnation and karma are a means to promote good behavior, morality and growth in Hinduism. Karma speaks not only of how things are, but also of how they ought to be, it points towards the goal of liberation and enlightenment (Garrett 37). It is not easy for one to say that tensions within the caste system in India exist because of reincarnation and karma, because they are not necessarily linked to one another. Hinduism is a religion of diverse thoughts and beliefs, and its followers carry differing views and ideas on religious concepts.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Ducasse, Curt John (1961) A critical examination of the belief in a life after death. Springfield, Illinois: C.C. Thomas.

Garrett, William (2005) Bad Karma: Thinking twice about the social consequences of reincarnation theory. Lanham: University Press of America.

Knapp, Stephen (2005) Reincarnation and Karma: How They Really Affect Us. New York: iUniverse.

Neufeldt, R. N. (1986) Karma and Rebirth: Post-Classical Developments. New York: State University of New York Press.

O’Flaherty, Wendy (1980) Karma and rebirth in classical Indian traditions. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Rodrigues, Hillary (2006) Hinduism: The E-book. Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books, Ltd.

Singh, Balbir (1981) Karma-Yoga: The Discipline of Action. Delhi: Humanities Press.

Singh, Balbir (1981) Dharma: Man Religion and Society. Delhi: Humanities Press.

Wadia, A.R. (1965) Philosophical Implications of the Doctrine of Karma. University of Hawai’i Press.

Related topics for further investigation

Dharma

Moksa

Samsara

Brahman

Atman

Cosmology

Samskara

Laws of Manu

Noteworthy sites related to topic

http://www.shaivam.org/hipkarma.htm

http://www.hinduwebsite.com/reincarnation.asp

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_lives

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnation_and_Hinduism

http://www.spiritual-wholeness.org/faqs/reincgen/hindrein.htm

http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/pamphlets/KarmaReincarnation.html

Article written by: Hala Higgy (March 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

Deities and Entities

Kamadeva (God of Desire)

Useful knowledge about the qualities of desire can be gathered from the stories and artwork involving Kamadeva: the god of sensual love. For instance, readers and viewers learn that love and desire are rooted in the mind and penetrate the body’s senses, can be lost but found, and are evoked through memory (Benton 181, 182). In contrast, love and desire are deceptively beautiful, manipulative, maddening, difficult to control, and can cause pain even when they are not visible (Benton 182). Therefore, Kamadeva is called many names, including Madana, which connotes an enthralling and even maddening aspect, Ananga, the intangible, Kandarpa, suggestive of pride, and Manmatha, he who makes the intellect uncertain (Fausboll 164 and Doniger O’Flaherty 157).

Armed with flowery arrows, Kamadeva is thought to have been born of the creator god Prajapati’s heart without the aid of any female component (Dimmitt and van Buitenen 34). Figuring prominently in depictions of Kamadeva are his two wives Rati and Priti – the personifications of sexual delight and affectionate pleasure, respectively (Benton 35). Rati, who was created from Daksa’s sweat, possesses beauty that is able to distract even the sages (Benton 28). She carries a discus and lotus and is Kamadeva’s assistant, who she was mutually in love with upon meeting. As Kamadeva’s aide, Rati enthralls others with desire and satisfies his own sexual needs but does not take on any other wifely duties (Benton 31, 32). Less is known about Priti as she found more often in art than literature; however, she is present in the story of Karnotpala, an aging woman who had not been able to find a husband (Benton 35). Kamadeva also has three voluptuous daughters that are described as temptresses (Campbell 195).

Discussing the nature of Kamadeva’s consorts offers further knowledge about this deity’s characteristics. Gandharvas and Apsarases, which are male and female heavenly creatures, respectively, are usually found in illustrations beside Kamadeva and Rati (Benton 131, 132, 135). The innumerable gandharvas and apsarases are related to the air and water components of clouds, as they move between earth and Indra’s heaven, where they reside, taking on various appearances to aid Kamadeva’s work (Benton 132, 133, 135, 137). The mesmerizing beauty, erotic nature, and seductive skills of the apsarases have even been called on by Indra to weaken the power certain yogis and ascetics have cultivated (Benton 133, 134). These creatures are thought to provoke madness, yearning, and disappointment but are also thought to be auspicious because they convey the possibility for joy and prosperity (Benton 135). Gandharvas are believed capable of seducing women with their attractive bodies and beautiful singing, which may also induce feelings of madness. These celestial beings share a connection with horses and are purported to have the ability to restore virility, sometimes through the use of herbal remedies (Benton 137).

In addition to the gandharvas and apsarases that are depicted with Kamadeva, his green parrot vehicle, or vahana, is traditionally shown at his feet and a mythical sea animal called a makara is depicted on his banner (Benton 131, 132). The appropriateness of Kamadeva’s vehicle is demonstrated by the affectionate nature parrots show toward one another and their human-like capability for speech (Benton 132). These two qualities, along with the fact that parrots are monogamous, give credit to the notion that parrots are wise to matters of the heart (Benton 141). The relation between Kamadeva and the makara is less clear although speculations can be made by examining the character of the Indian crocodile and river dolphin (Benton 142, 144). [For example, the oil of the Susu river dolphin is sought after as an aphrodisiac, love potion, and cure for impotence and its meat is consumed to increase virility (Benton 146, 148).] It is important to note, however, that neither the gandharvas, apsarases, parrot, nor makara play a role in the stories involving Kamadeva, although they are consistently portrayed in art of this deity (Benton 131).

According to the Silpa Sastras, Kamadeva is to be formally portrayed with the season of spring, Vasanta, and the makara banner is to be carried by a horse-faced being, whose appearance connotes the virility of horses (Benton 131, 132). Furthermore, Kamadeva should wear a garland of flowers, among other ornaments, and be armed with his sugarcane bow and five arrows made with flowers (Benton 131). These “five arrows are made of the sun lotus, the asoka flower, the mango, jasmine, and blue lotus, and they cause infatuation, excitement, parching or withering, heating, and paralysis (or stiffening)” (Doniger O’Flaherty 159). The Kamadeva also has gold coloring (Benton 16). In contrast to this iconographic description, it is rare to find the male deity Vasanta in images with Kamadeva, perhaps because his svelte body might divert onlookers’ attention. [For a discussion of Vasanta and the Maras as Kamadeva’s companions, see Benton 32-34]. Similarly, it is uncommon to find the banner-carrier in depictions with Kamadeva (Benton 132). [Certain similarities can be found between Kamadeva and the water god Varuna, who is called on by individuals suffering from unreciprocated love (Benton 137, 139). Like Kamadeva, Varuna is associated with the virility of horses and the makara (Benton 139).]

Perhaps Kamadeva’s most significant role in Sanskrit literature occurs in the Saiva Puranas (Klostermaier 152). Here, Kamadeva is characterized as Siva’s sexual opponent. As a great ascetic, Siva must refrain from desire, yet as the god of the linga and husband to Parvati, he must fulfill his sexual obligations and produce offspring (although he does this grudgingly) (Doniger O’Flaherty 154, 262). It is in this way that Kamadeva exercises power over the other gods. In these texts the god of love momentarily meets his demise after interrupting Siva’s meditations and being burned by his eye in an instance of fury (Klostermaier 152). Creating the context for this event is the granting of a boon by Brahma to the demon Taraka as a reward for his asceticism. More powerful than even Siva or Visnu, Taraka proceeded to steal the wives of all of the gods, creating much fear and despair among them. Upon fleeing to Brahma, the gods are informed that Taraka was rendered invincible to their powers but could be killed by an offspring of the childless Siva. After discussion occurs among the deities, Indra beckons Kamadeva, who cannot be destroyed by demons or gods and who permeates the entire cosmos, including Brahma. Indra instructs Kamadeva to fill Siva with desire and move him to marry Parvati so that they may have a child. With Rati and the spring season in tow, Kamadeva comes close to the place where Siva was deep in meditation but is first confronted by Sailadi, who was guarding the area. In order to by pass Sailadi, Kamadeva turned himself into a sweet-scented breeze. Finding Siva, Kamadeva stood with his bow drawn. At this time, Siva was distracted by Parvati and sensing that Kamadeva was present, burned him with his eye before he was able to release an arrow. Siva then offered Parvati a boon but she had no desire for it as she believed that without Kamadeva happiness could not be possible. Siva was then beckoned by Kali, to whom he granted a boon. She requested that he let Kamadeva live, which he did, although in a bodiless form (Doniger O’Flaherty 154-159). A slightly different interpretation of this story grants Parvati a more active role, as it is she who enlists Kamadeva’s skills to help her win Siva over (Klostermaier 152). Another version also comments on the influence of Rati when pleading for her husband’s rebirth (Benton 31). [Kamadeva also plays a role in the story of “Pradyumna and the Fish” (see Dimmitt and van Buitenen 141, 142) and the tale of how “Siva Engenders the Submarine Mare” (see Doniger O’Flaherty 159-161).]

As symbols of love and fertility, images of both Kamadeva and Rati are found in temples (Benton 131). Although vratas (conditional vows made to a deity), pujas (deity worship), and utsavas (festivals) involving Kamadeva are extremely rare, and perhaps have always been, they deserve mention because they demonstrate a connection between desire and spirituality that tends to be absent in many religions (Benton 93). It is important to note, however, that the sole worship of Kamadeva does not appear to be a widely acceptable practice today (Benton 102). Nonetheless, several pujas, described in the Agni Purana, can be performed by the devotee to attract a lost lover, or to increase one’s prosperity, among other things. Many other vratas and pujas devoted to Kamadeva are described elsewhere and include the worship of the damanaka plant (a symbol of this god) during the Kama Trayodasi. To gain the attention of Kamadeva and Rati, art and music are often used during these rituals. While the goals of the devotees can be quite diverse, certain vratas are performed for more specific reasons, as is the case in the vrata for prostitutes, who seek a successful rebirth. [For information on vratas for prostitutes and fertility, see Benton 96-99, and see Benton 99-101 for “Rituals for Beauty and Husbands: Tirthas for Couples.”] There is evidence of a festival, called Kamadeva’s Day, during which male followers would perform certain rituals to be reborn in a handsome, desirable body. Kamadeva’s Day would be held during March or April, which is the month of Caitra, at the Ahalya Tirtha (Benton 94). Indeed, the month of Caitra and Vaisakha (April-May) remain the most popular time for weddings, during which Kamadeva is often incorporated (Benton 102). [During Kamadeva’s Festival, which is mentioned in the drama Carudatta by Bhasa, many love-marriages took place (Benton 94).]

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

 Benton, Catherine (2006) God of Desire: Tales of Kamadeva in Sanskrit Story Literature. Albany: State University of New York Press.
 
 Campbell, Joseph (1974) The Mythic Image. Princeton: Princeton
               University Press.
 
 Dimmitt, Cornelia, and van Buitenen, J.A.B. (eds. and trans.) (1978) Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
 
 Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy (1975) Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook Translated from the Sanskrit. Ed. Betty Radice. London: Penguin Books Ltd.
 
 Fausboll, V. (1981) Indian Mythology: According to the Indian Epics. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications.
 
 Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2000) Hinduism: A Short History. Oxford: One World Publications.
 
 
Related Topics for Further Investigation
 
Rati
Priti
Karnotpala
Gandharvas 
Apsarases
Makara
Parrots
Indian crocodile
Indian river dolphins
Vasanta
Varuna
Maras
Parvati
Taraka
Indra
Sailadi
“Pradyumna and the Fish”
“Siva Engenders the Submarine Mare”
Damanaka plant
Vrata for prostitutes
Horses
Kamadeva’s Day and Festival
Siva
 
Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://www.webonautics.com/mythology/kamadeva.html

http://hinduism.about.com/library/weekly/aa021201a.htm

http://www.thecolorsofindia.com/holi-legends/sacrifice-of-kamadeva.html

http://www.exoticindiaart.com/product/DC75/

http://www.indiaprofile.com/religion-culture/kama.htm

http://www.pantheon.org/articles/k/kama.html

Article written by: Katie Herzog (March 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

c. The Bhagavad Gita, General Studies

The Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad-Gita is an influential and important scripture in Hindu culture, as it is an aid to attain moksa, or self-realization. This scripture is highly regarded by cultural and political nationalists in Europe, American and India and people like Mahatma Ghandi used the Gita as a main source of inspiration to situations like the independence movement in India (Edgerton ix).. Like that of Christ in Christianity, the Buddha in Buddhism, or Allah in Islam, Hindus believe that Krsna is our real self (Easwaran 28). Krsna, who is the speaker of the Gita is incorporated in many aspects of this scripture. Some scholars say that the Bhagavad-Gita should be looked at as a religious, devotional poem (Edgerton 106). This “devotional poem” was recorded to be compiled into 700 verses divided into eighteen sections. This scripture has been devoutly followed by some Hindus, and has been looked at by some scholars to be a metaphorical text that has became to be known as a key Sanskrit scripture of Hinduism.

The Bhagavad-Gita is contained in the Hindu epic Mahabharata, an influential scripture that is often called the great epic of India. The Mahabharata is much larger than that of other texts; it is the longest composition of literature of the ancient world as it contains approximately 100,000 couplets (Katz 2). This epic poem is considered to be the first to articulate the concept of bhakti, or devotion to God. The specific focus of bhakti in the Mahabharata is towards Visnu who is incarnated into a human form. Acts of devotion towards Krsna are seen not only within the Mahabharata, but more importantly in the Gita. “The Song of God” is advice from Lord Krsna to Arjuna on the battlefield in the Kuruksetra War fought between the five Pandava brothers and 100 Kauravas. As Arjuna’s charioteer, Krsna guides him in his decision making, helping the five brothers win the war. Through the Gita, Arjuna became Krsna’s disciple as he took his teachings, applied them to his own life, and shared them with others. In parallel to the Pandava/Kaurava battle, Krsna insists that we must actually fight the battle against the suffering that we have within ourselves.

The Bhagavad-Gita was produced in the framework of the Mahabharata “to bring a solution to the dharmic dilemma of a war” (Buitenen 5). This creation of scripture that came from this milieu provides a “religious and philosophical context…which can be dealt with” (Buitenen 5). Hindu interpretations of the Gita suggest that as Arjuna had done, if we are able to let the Lord into our hearts, he can outline the highest goal of knowing our true self. This self contains two aspects which are explained in the Gita. The two principles are the “soul” or “self” and the “non-soul” (Edgerton 140). The soul does not have any qualities; it is unitary and does not change or partake in action. The “non-soul” or prakriti (material nature) is what performs actions, and changes unlike the “soul” (Edgerton 140). In this text, prakrti is explained to be developed throughout the body and as part of God. These elements of the self are discussed by Krsna in the Gita to his student Arjuna and is discussed that through bhakti (devotion) is one able to achieve this part of self.

Devotion to God is not discussed in the beginning of the Gita; however the “middle chapters of the work it gradually becomes more prominent” (Edgerton 173). Some scholars have indicated that the Bhagavad-Gita explains that God cancels prakrti as an aid and benefit to his devotees and brings them salvation through divine grace (Edgerton 174). The Gita opens up devoted worship to everyone; highest realization is not selected to certain classes (Rodrigues 163). So long as Krsna or any other deity is sincerely worshiped can a person be “rendered a saint through devotion” (Rodrigues 162). One clear example of a man who lives his life to devote himself to God is Arjuna.

In the Gita, Arjuna is related to other people that have the tenancy to want to lead a life for their selves, not taking into account of what the Lord wants. This scripture contains teachings of Krsna to Arjuna that mention the selfish desire that can threaten a person’s life if one were to not take care of it. Krsna is mentioned to have ultimate control over all universal affairs and it is only through him can a purified materially contaminated consciousness be achieved. Material nature, or prakrti “works under [his] direction” as it works eternally through his control. Prakrti is developed throughout the body, senses and mind, and is believed to be a part of God’s own nature (Edgerton 141). Because of this, Krsna urges through Arjuna that he is to give him devotion to the significant and real life that he has given; particularly through meditation.

Karma yoga (selfless action), jnana yoga (spiritual wisdom) and bhaki yoga (love and devotion) are three types of meditation that are mentioned in the Gita. Some scholars suggest that the central principle to attain moksa is “action characterized by indifference…but it is always an indifference in action” (Edgerton 166). Kama, or attachment to actions creates a bondage to the “laws of causality,” but the highest attainment of the self can be made without this bondage to actions (Rodrigues 161). Jnana yoga on the other hand means “discipline of knowledge” and involves the concentration and meditation to know the Self (Edgerton 166). In the Gita, Krsna identifies himself with the highest realization, or absolute reality. The last yoga mentioned in this scripture is bhaki yoga which means love and devotion; by “devoted love of God one can attain knowledge…and so indirectly the salvation which comes thru this knowledge” (Edgerton 173).

The Gita stresses that through these stages, a follower is then able to be free from karma to gain moksa; as long as their actions do not liberate them. One must act without attachment from the outcome that comes with it. Through these stages can one reach full awareness towards Krsna, who in the Gita identifies himself with this ultimate realization.

The Bhagavad-Gita provides a clear description of Krsna as man, God, and Brahman as the absolute reality and redefines the yoga paths to attain the highest stage/goal of Hindu spiritual endeavour: moksa. The Gita explains to its readers that it is important for one is to find reason; to trust in God through devotion in order to reach this state of spiritual endeavour. This important Hindu scripture is “justified by the fact that millions of men have found religious comfort…and salvation thru it;” and it is because of this reason among many other factors has the Bhagavad-Gita become known to be a key Sanskrit scripture of Hinduism (Edgerton 194).

REFERENCES AND RURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Buitenen van J.A.B. (1981) The Bhagavadgita in the Mahabharata. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Edgerton, Franklin (1972) The Bhagavad Gita. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Katz, Ruth (1989) Arjuna in the Mahabharata. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.

Rodrigues, Hillary (2006) Introducing Hinduism. UK: Routledge.

Related Topics for Further Investigation

The Mahabharata

Arjuna
Bhakti yoga
Bhakti
Dharma
Jnana yoga

Karma yoga
Kaurava
Krsna
Kurukshetra War
Mahatma Ghandi
Pandava

Prakrti

Sankalpa
Sanskrit

Visnu

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita/

http://www.bhagavad-gita.us/

http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/D_0307.htm
http://www.asitis.com/
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/index.htm
http://www.krishna.com/taxonomy/term/49
http://www.atmajyoti.org/gi_bhagavad_gita_intro.asp

Written by Christel Hansen (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

a. Asceticism and Renunciation

Tapas (Ascetic Heat)

Tapas, derived from the Sanskrit root tap– meaning “to consume or destroy by heat” (Kaelber 192) is an important concept in Hindu asceticism. Tapas or “inner heat” is obtained through ascetic practice. There are other meanings however. It can also be used to refer to penance (Kaelber 207), the destructive nature of heat (Kaelber 198), as well as sexual heat (Kaelber 343). It is believed to be a fundamental aspect to the religious experiences associated with fire and heat (e.g. ascetic practices and austerities) (Knipe 101).

Some of the ascetic concept of tapas is related to the creation of the cosmos. It takes part in an ongoing idea of the cosmos being associated with a spiritual unit or “mystical universe” (Knipe 36). For instance, the stars are believed to be created by Prajapati exerting himself in tapas for a thousand years. It is said that the stars are created from the pores of his heated body (Knipe 115). In another example, it is the creative power of this ascetic heat (tapas) which is the beginning in all myths regarding the creation of the universe (O’Flaherty 41).

As previously mentioned, tapas can be used to refer to the heat of asceticism. This type of heat is sometimes referred to as voluntary or “unnatural” heat. In this respect, tapas not only refers to the heat created through asceticism but to the practice of asceticism itself (Kaelber 343). Tapas, when being used for spiritual rebirth is always a voluntary, self-imposed asceticism rather than natural (Kaelber 359). These types of voluntary practices include such things as seclusion or isolation, silence, fasting, and brahmacarya or chastity, to name a few (Kaelber 359). It is important to note however that tapas can also be used to refer to natural heat, such as that given off by the sun or fire (Kaelber 343). According to the Brahmanas, tapas are understood as a sort of personal austerity or asceticism (Kaelber 201). Individuals, who undergo this asceticism, purify themselves through tapas; the impure condition of that individual is overcome which moves him from the state of impurity to the purity (Kaelber 205). This then allows for individuals to rise to a celestial condition (Kaelber 207). Tapas then, refers to the practices performed; it is the practice of asceticism. Tapas, however, also refers to the result of that asceticism (e.g. the heat generated through ascetic practice). Through asceticism (or tapas) the ascetic becomes heated (Kaelber 360).

The concept of destructive tapas is observed both in the Rg Veda and the Atharva Veda. The pain which is associated with this kind of tapas is both undesirable and unpleasant and can be either physical or mental (Kaelber 198). Destructive tapas is correlated in ritual literature with “the external purification of ritual objects” (Kaelber 196). This is believed because the destructive heat of the fire is said to purify directly. For example, in the Dharma Sutras, when they refer to the purification of objects at sacrifices, these objects are said to be cleansed of their impurity by being exposed to the flame of Agni (Kaelber 197). In this sense, it is tapas that comes to be viewed as the power of purification (Kaelber 197)

Tapas is also used to refer to sexual heat (e.g. heat of sexual yearning, the heat of sexual excitation, and the heat generated during intercourse) (Kaelber 343). The association of tapas and sexual heat is more directly seen in the relationship between tapas and the notions of love, desire, or lust. These three ideas are often translated into the Sanskrit word kama meaning “pleasure” (Kaelber 347).

We find tapas to be associated with many of the gods in Hinduism. Siva, an extremely important figure in Hindu mythology, is often referred to as the great lord of tapas (Knipe 101). In many Hindu myths, we find the mention of tapas. For example, in the myths regarding Parvati trying to win Siva as her husband, she sets out to perform tapas (austerities). By setting out to perform tapas, it is believed that she leaves her world of the householder and enters into Siva’s world, which is that of the renouncer (Kinsley 43). This concept is also associated with the Hindu god Agni whose consuming heat is one side of his tapas-producing character (Kaelber 194). In close association to this we find that Agni-Prajapati is born of tapas or “cosmic heat” (Knipe 115). We find that tapas and Brahman (ultimate reality) are also associated, “by tapas seek to know Brahman (for) Brahman is tapas” (Knipe 119). This statement implies a direct association between the Hindu concept of Brahman and the concept of tapas. In Hindu mythology, it is believed that one of the most effective ways to obtain what it is a person wants is to perform ascetic austerities (tapas). With enough persistence, so much heat (tapas) will be generated that the gods will have no choice but to grant the ascetic a wish to save themselves from being burned by the tapas (heat) of the ascetic (Kinsley 42).

We see that tapas is an important ascetic practice and concept within Hinduism. It can also be used to refer to many different contexts such as ritual-ascetic heat/sweat, sexual heat/semen, etc (O’Flaherty). In some myths for example, it is the spilling of seed which translates into these contexts (e.g. Brahma becoming overwhelmed with lust while looking upon Sati, his seed spills to the ground and forms clouds which release water upon the land [O’Flaherty 42]). Given the many different meanings behind tapas, it is in this sense that it can be viewed as both process and product.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Kaelber, Walter (1976) “Tapas”, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda. History of Religions,

15(4), 343-386.

Kaelber, Walter (1979) Tapas and Purification in Early Hinduism. Numen, 26, 192-214.

Kaelber, Walter (1989) Tapta-Marga: Asceticism and Initiation in Vedic India. Delhi: Sri

Satguru Publications.

Kinsley, David (?) Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious

Tradition. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Knipe, David (1975) In The Image of Fire. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

O’Flaherty, Wendy (1973) Siva: The Erotic Ascetic. London: Oxford University Press.

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Agni

Asceticism

Austerities

Brahma

Brahmacarya

Brahman

Dharma Sutras

Kama

Parvati

Prajapati

Siva

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapas_%28Sanskrit%29

http://www.katinkahesselink.net/other/tapas.html

http://www.rainbowbody.net/HeartMind/Tapas.htm

http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/vedaheat.html

http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/disc/disc_65.html#3

Article written by: Sarah Hammett (March 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

Gender Issues

Women and Fertility



The Maiden
Ideals about women have not changed drastically throughout the centuries. For example, information about women’s rituals wasn’t much valued as a high priority for scribes to write down, although interest in this subject is growing little is still known. One of the most widely known texts that have sections dedicated to women, was written of, and looked to as an enforcing factor on norm stability are The Laws Of Manu. What was suitable for women and what was not is still looked up to today for what is suitable and is not. A good example would be to quote Manu (Manu 76-77) on the strict specifications oh how to choose a suitable bride;

Let him not marry a maiden (with) reddish (hair), nor one who has a redundant member, nor one who is sickly, nor one either with too little hair (on body) or too much, nor one who is garrulous or has red (eyes), nor one named after a constellation, a tree, or a river, nor one named of a low caste, or a mountain, nor one named after a bird, a snake, or a slave, nor one whose name inspires terror. Let him wed a female free of bodily defects, who has an agreeable name, the (graceful) gait of an elephant, a moderate (quantity of) hair on the body and on the head, small teeth, and soft limbs. But a prudent man should not marry (a maiden) who has no brother, nor one whose father is not known, through fear lest (in the former case she be made) an appointed daughter (and in the latter) lest (he commit) to sin.


In the first part of this passage Manu is very specific about how high the importance of beauty is among choosing a bride. A “homely” woman would have a hard time finding a husband without an arranged marriage. It is said that the bride must be beautiful in order to invoke her husband’s desire for her. If she were not desirable to him, he would have a hard time finding the will to produce a child with her (Fruzzetti 46). With the latter part, it is assumed that a young Hindu man would not want to marry a woman with no brother because if he did then responsibility would fall upon him to take care of her mother (if she is still around). To marry a women to whom the father is unknown, the young man would not know who or of what caste her father was, or even if she was a legitimate child, either of these could lead to very bad things, even as severe as being disowned/disgracing his family.

Coming Of Age
Menstrual blood is considered to be especially polluting, although there is ambiguity here since some classical texts treat menstrual blood as the female seed which joins with the male semen to produce a child. Some tantric practices take the approach of using female discharges, such as menstrual blood, as a ritual drink- the idea being to use the most powerful female pollution to overcome all other pollutions (Coward 3) .

It is felt that the coming of a girl’s menstruation is a sure sign of her readiness for marriage.
(Fruzzetti 69-67) Even though this is a welcoming sign of the daughter’s fertility it also becomes a fear. The fear blooms from the idea that now the young girl is fertile [viewed as being fully grown] she will now be a temptation to the other men of the house. Marriage is the only way of removing the potential occurrence of impure acts. (Fruzzetti 96-97)

As hinted above, a girl’s chastity is viewed as very important; this stress on keeping your daughter chaste also goes into marrying her off to a suitable son of an equal, or possibly higher, caste as soon as possible to limit the time in between that she could tempt other males (Coward 18).

A Male Heir

Not in all cases is menstruation viewed as impure or polluting. It is sometimes viewed as the female creative power, paralleling that of the male semen. In Post-Vedic mythology, menstrual blood sometimes appears as a symbol of the passion of women. In primitive physiology, menstrual blood, rather than the ovum was viewed as the female component which combined with the male seed to produce conception (Coward 29). The most common reference is viewed as the cultivation of a field. The women being the field, men being the farmers which plough, seed, and farm [like Sita- who is born of the earth and goes back into the earth. Women regard themselves as mother earth] (Coward 36).

Conceptualization of a child is a very important goal among the Hindus’ householder stage, marriage. Even though the birth of the first child is a splendid occasion, it tends to be even more splendid if it is a baby boy. There is a type of equation that Manu (83-87) had figured out. In which he had come to the conclusion that there were certain days a women was in season, 16 days and nights – including four days which are censured by the virtuous, among these days he believed that the numerology of the days also contribute to determining the sex of the child. If the child was conceived in an even day it would end up being a boy; if the child was conceived on an odd day it would come out being a girl. Manu also believed that a son is produced by a larger amount of male seed- leading to the unwritten conclusion that a male with a low sperm count will only be able to produce females, if any children at all.

The importance of birthing a son is captured wholly in the idea that the male blood line is continued through the sons using the wife’s body as a vessel. Blood transmission is made possible by the wife’s body being a receptacle and a transmitter. Women then are thought of as being the only means in which a man can continue his line and transmit his ancestral blood. This immortality of the line is made possible by the birth of male children through the wife (Fruzzetti 24).















Bibliography and Other Recommended Readings




Fruzzetti, Lina (1989) The gift of a virgin: women, marriage, and ritual in a Bengali Society. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.

Coward, Harold G (1989) Hindu ethics: purity, abortion, and euthanasia. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Chitgopekar, Nilima (2002) Invoking goddesses: gender politics in Indian religion. New Delhi: Shakti Books.






Buhler, G.[translated by Buhler from Manu’s original work] (1964) Laws of Manu. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.






Everett, Jana Matson (1979) Women and social change in India. New York: St. Martin’s Press.


Desai, Neera (1987) Women and society in India. Delhi: Ajanta Publications.


Dhruvarajan, Vanaja (1989) Hindu women and the power of ideology. Granby, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey.






Related Topics for further investigation




Anandamayi Ma

Sita

Sita as Mother Earth

Ramayana

Caste system

Manu

Vedic Numerology




Related websites

http://hinduism.about.com/library/weekly/extra/bl-lawsofmanu10.htm






Written by Phelicia Hamilton (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.



	

	
	




	
	

				

			Major Characters of the Mahabharata
		

			
Draupadi

		

			 		

	


		

		


 


In Hindu mythology, few women stand out as much as the character of Draupadi. Draupadi is the wife of the five Pandava princes in the Hindu epic the Mahabharata; she is a heroine who is unpredictable, unwavering and who could also possess the austerity of a traditional Hindu wife. Many see Draupadi as an early feminist because of her fearlessness in admonishing those who harmed her or her family. Draupadi existed in a time when a woman’s role was to serve her husband. As Dr. Vanamala Bhawalkar states “[in] Draupadi’s Era, there was no question of women’s equality with men. The wife was the counterpart of her husband and both together became a complete person. As Milton had said “He for God and she for the God in him” was true in those days.”(150) The unique relationship between Draupadi and her husbands is what makes her story so exceptional. Draupadi, the wife of the mighty Pandava brothers was anything but a conventional wife; she was smart, bold and would often lead her husbands into action.


There are few women that compete with the beauty of Draupadi; all those that met her adored her. Her beauty was so great that she delighted all of the human senses. Alf Hiltbeitel states this of her beauty: “[T]he very sight of her was magnetic due to her irresistible beauty and fragrance”(Hiltebeitel 267). Draupadi’s beauty would gain her much attention, but it is her ability to balance her beauty with the desirable traits of a wife that gain her such devotion. However, as Bhawalkar notes, it was not only her beauty that won her praise: “Yudhisthira said that she was such that any man would desire and that she never committed any sin. Bhima equaled her to the ancient famous wives. Her mother-in-law Kunti praised her for the virtues and her laudable behavior with all her husbands”(Bhawalkar 141). Draupadi was as skilled in the arts of being a woman, and everything that was associated with womanhood, as she was gifted in beauty. Her opinions were well respected and supported by her family due to her vast knowledge of many subjects. Unlike many women in her era, Draupadi’s father, Drupada, allowed Draupadi to be educated. Bhawalkar comments on Draupadi’s education: “Drupada had engaged learned Brahmanas for the education of his sons. Draupadi also joined them and became an expert in Political Science”(Bhawalkar 3). It is possible that the unique qualities that Draupadi possessed, such as strength and audacity, are a result of being educated. Having such a complete education would have given Draupadi a sense of confidence unfamiliar to most women. Also Draupadi was quick to learn and thirsted for knowledge; she had a keen memory and had a vast knowledge on many subjects. Bhawalkar comments on the success of Draupadi as a student: “She became known as Pandita (learned and wise) and grew up a charming maiden admired by all”(Bhawalkar 4). Bhawalkar affirms that these attributes are a part of why Draupadi was so well liked and respected. Her intellect and knowledge did not however hinder her ability to be a dutiful wife. “Draupadi was a devoted wife, chaste, religious minded and adhering to duty. Her integrity and fidelity were admirable. She was always careful to please her husbands, served not only them but even their wives”(Bhawalkar 142). Draupadi was concerned with the common good of all her family and believed that a family functioned best as a whole unit. Draupadi was so devoted to her husbands that she followed them into exile and a life without lavishes. Sandy Sutherland notes that in exile she is depicted as: “having suffered great insult, but faithfully following her husbands into exile and enduring the hardships of the forest. It is from these scenes, and not from her life in the palace, that we learn of the real character of Draupadi”(Sutherland 68). She was quick to see the benefit of her polygamous lifestyle and was able to take all obstacles in stride. Draupadi possessed the desirable traits of many women, and was able to use these traits to influence and control. Draupadi had a great understanding of the balance between being bold and forthright, and being submissive and dutiful.


Of all the parts in the Mahabharata that include Draupadi, the story of Draupadi’s Cheer-Haran remains the most vivid. This is an important event because it is one of the main reasons for the Mahabharata war, and it is also a breaking point for Draupadi. The climax of this event is when Draupadi is dragged into court after Yudhisthira had lost her in a bet to the Kauravas, along with all of his wealth and kingdom. The character Dushsasana, one of the Kaurava brothers, attempts to strip off Draupadi’s sari. However, Draupadi prays to Krsna and he works a miracle to prevent her sari from running out of layers. Draupadi is humiliated by this and is angered by the Pandavas inability or reluctance to help her. It is her reaction to this abhorrence that we see Draupadi’s bravery, as she reprimands those around her in the court. Bimal Krishna Matilal comments on her courage: “Draupadi had presence of mind and fearlessness even during calamities. She could rebuke and threaten the Kauravas, Jayadratha and Kicaka for molesting her and was bold enough to argue with the members of the assemblies of the Kuras and also Virata”(Matilal 143). It is Draupadi’s reaction to situations like these that set her apart from her husbands; she is often the first to react to any injustices and is a visibly powerful figure often controlling the Pandavas. Sutherland comments on the power that Draupadi possesses in this incident: “The episode is ironic, though. During the scene we are made aware that the beautiful Draupadi is possessed also of quick wit and a clever tongue. Her ability at debate is soon demonstrated, and at the conclusion of the episode, we realize that her wit has saved her husbands from impending slavery”(Sutherland 67). The Pandavas recognize what Draupadi is capable of and listen to her. Because she possesses such vast knowledge on politics, the Pandavas are inclined to listen to her and frequently rely upon her for decision-making. This is not to say that Draupadi was invincible, she was greatly affected by conflict and would become emotional. Bhawalkar comments the on emotional side of Draupadi: “Draupadi, unlike the mythological goddess or the ideal heroines of our ancient literature, was quite human with human emotions and feelings like anger, love, hate, happiness and grief. Her life was full of ups and downs and she maintained her dignity in both the situations”(Bhawalkar 141). It is Draupadi’s ability to overcome adversity in a venerable manner that sets her apart from other women. In the Mahabharata she proves that no situation is insurmountable, and she never abandons her husbands, regardless of the positions they lead her into.


After the incident at the court of the Kurus, Draupadi emerges as a much more powerful character and this is seen in the interactions with her husbands. Bhawalkar remarks on Draupadi’s relationship with her husbands: “Draupadi was not a dumb follower of her husbands. She had her own individuality. Though soft speaking she used harsh words to her husbands and others when necessary”(Bhawalkar 143). This boldness is what sets her apart from other women in the epics. The Pandavas are accepting of this treatment possibly because they feel guilt for their abandonment of Draupadi at the court, or possibly because they truly trust in her decisions. The Pandavas often looked to Draupadi for guidance and approval. Draupadi was in many ways equal to her husbands and they desired her respect. Despite the fact that Draupadi eventually forgives her husbands, she is left with a desire for vengeance, and is quick to seek revenge on those who offend her or her family. Draupadi begins to be recognized for this aggressive attitude and her enemies are wary of her power. Enemies knew that Draupadi had a great influence on the Pandavas and she was feared because of her vast knowledge on all things moral. “She could argue forcibly to win her point with apt quotations and illustrations from her fund of knowledge on various subjects like righteousness, duties and codes of conduct for the four Varnas (castes), moral, legal and ethical codes and was called Dharmajna, Dharmadarsini”(Bhawalkar 141). Although Draupadi was desperate for revenge on those who harmed her, her distinction between right and wrong was rarely clouded and she was often in pursuit of justice. 


Draupadi’s distinction among other women from the epics is paramount and well deserved; she was far ahead of her time, often found commanding her husbands to do her bidding. It is her ability to use her position with responsibility and insight that show her true power as a woman. Dr. Bhawalkar summarizes Draupadi’s unique qualities:


Yet the superb qualities of Draupadi like steadfast devotion to duty, spirit of self sacrifice, fortitude; courage, capacity for hard work, presence of mind, perseverance, endurance, thirst for knowledge, wisdom to discriminate between right and wrong and strength to fight against injustice, truth, modesty, forgiveness, softness and harshness as the occasion demanded – these and such other qualities seen in Draupadi’s life are universal and beyond the limit of time and space. (Bhawalkar 151)


Draupadi’s fearlessness and uncompromising nature makes her of great importance in the history of mythological women and of women today.


 


 


Bibliography


 


Bhawalkar, V. (2002) Eminent Women in the Mahabharata. Delhi: Sharada Publishing 


 


 House.


 


Hiltebeitel, Alf. (1988) The Cult of Draupadi Volume 1. Chicago: University of Chicago 


 


 Press.


 


Matilal, Bimal Krishna. (1989) Moral Dilemmas In The Mahabharata. India: Shri 


 


 Jainendra Press.


 


Sutherland, Sally J (1989) “Sita and Draupadi: Aggressive Behavior and Female Role-


 


 Models in the Sanskrit Epics.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 109, 


 


 no. 1 (Jan. – Mar.): 63-79.


 


 


 


Related Topics


 


Mahabharata


Pandavas


Epics


Krishna


Bhakti


Karna


Arjuna


Bhima


Yudisthira


Nakula


Sahadeva


Kunti


Kauravas


Indian Feminism


 


 


Related Websites


 


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draupadi


 


http://www.dollsofindia.com/draupadi.htm


 


http://moralstories.wordpress.com/2006/05/15/draupadi-an-ikon-of-a-true-indian-woman/


 


http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm


 


http://www.mahabharataonline.com/


 


http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm


 


http://moralstories.wordpress.com/2006/05/15/draupadi-an-ikon-of-a-true-indian-woman/


 


 


Written by Chloe Grant (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.