Category Archives: I. The Hindu Temple and Worship Rituals

5. Mimamsa, b. Darsana, c. The Six Orthodox Systems

The Mimamsa Darsana

The Hindu tradition is composed of a number of darsanas, or philosophical systems (Padhi and Padhi 221). This should not surprise the keen observer of Hinduism as the religion itself encapsulates a variety of theological, ritual, and philosophical schools of thought and practice. Among the latter is found the Mimamsa darsana, the philosophical school of Vedic interpretation and apologetics. The Mimamsa philosophical system is also important for underscoring the ritualistic nature of the early Vedic literature and for its rigorous epistemological contributions to Hindu philosophy to bolster the truth contained in the Vedas.

The earliest exposition of the Mimamsa darsana is that of the Hindu writer Jaimini. His Mimamsa-Sutra contains over 2,500 aphorisms and is estimated to have been written in 200 CE (Padhi and Padhi 222). Scholars do not credit Jaimini with the creation of the Mimamsa system, but do recognize his systematic presentation of the oral traditions and interpretations of Mimamsa as foundational to the philosophical school of thought (Dasgupta 370). Jaimini’s Mimamsa-Sutra is divided into 12 chapters, 60 sections, and covers nearly 1000 topics. In this significant work Jaimini espouses the general rules (nyayas) with which to distinguish dharma, that is, action in accord with the cosmic order, from adharma, action that is not in proper accord with the cosmos (Padhi and Padhi 222). As such, the Mimamsa-Sutra elucidates the number of sacrifices and rituals that existed in the Hindu tradition at that time. Perhaps the greatest contribution of Jaimini’s work, and of the Mimamsa darsana more generally, is its epistemological contribution to the understanding of knowledge as to how it can be interpreted and derived from the Vedas, the holy scriptures of the Hindu tradition (Padhi and Padhi 222).

The oldest extant commentary on Jaimini’s Mimamsa-Sutra is the Sabarabhasya (Bronkhorst 1). This work was followed by other expositions contained in the Slokavartika in the eighth century and the Prakaranapancika in the ninth century (Clooney 51). A more succinct expression of Mimamsa’s philosophical position was put forward in the Manameyodaya, which was begun by Narayanabhattatiri around 1590 and finished by Narayanasudhi a century later (Clooney 51). The system of Mimamsa articulated by Jaimini and developed by the aforementioned commentaries is also known as Purva-Mimamsa. The name reflects Jaimini’s interpretation (mimamsa) of the earlier Vedic texts, more specifically, the ritually oriented Brahmanas (Padhi and Padhi 219). This distinguishes Purva-Mimamsa from the hegemonic Hindu philosophy of Vedanta, which is also known as Uttara-Mimamsa for its interpretive focus of the chronologically later Vedic texts, namely the Upanisads (Clooney 53). Although scholarship suggests that there exists a great deal of continuity between Purva and Uttara-Mimamsa [For further discussion on the continuity between Mimamsa and Vedanta see Bronkhorst (2007)], the two systems are often studied separately (Clooney 53). Consequently, Vedanta philosophy shall receive cursory treatment in the present discussion.

As previously stated, the primary aim of Jaimini’s Mimamsa-Sutra is to address those actions that are conducive to the realization of dharma (Arnold np). In doing so, the Mimamsa darsana shifts the ideological focus away from the principal Hindu concern of liberation (moksa) from the cycle of rebirth, and toward an orthopraxis, or correct performance, of the brahminic rituals of the Vedic texts. With the attainment of heaven (syarga) and success in the life hereafter hanging in the balance, it becomes essential for the Mimamsa philosopher to establish the orthodoxy of the Vedic ritualistic injunctions (Bronkhorst 1). Jaimini maintains that the characteristics (laksana) of dharma can only be known by means of Vedic injunctions (codana) and testimony (sabda) (Arnold np). As a result, the secondary focus of the Mimamsa darsana is to function as an apologetic school in defense of the Vedic scriptures. As such, the primary concern of subsequent Mimamsa theorists is to demonstrate the intrinsic validity (svatah pramanya) of the religious truth contained within the Vedas (Arnold np). Consequently, the Mimamsa system is heavy laden with discussions pertaining to semantics and grammar (Hiriyanna 299). In their simplest form, the Mimamsakas attempt to uncover the very principles according to which the Vedas were written so as to reveal the truths contained within them (Hiriyanna 298).

Arnold astutely observes that the philosophical project of the Mimamsakas to prove the intrinsic validity of Vedic language using the Vedas themselves seems counterintuitive from the perspective of Western philosophy. Francis Clooney, however, argues that this is not surprising given the epistemological position of Mimamsa. Clooney clarifies that Mimamsa regards truth as right knowledge (prama), which may be known by way of pramanas (hereafter, means of right knowing) (Clooney 45). Jaimini himself conceded three pramanas: perception, inference, and verbal testimony. However, he contended that the word (sabda) of the Vedas alone is the only infallible means of knowledge (Padhi and Padhi 225-245). As such, Mimamsa theorists maintain that the ritual words of the Vedas are firmly intertwined with the ritual realities they endorse (Clooney 52). This is derived from Jaimini’s proposition that one should appeal to as few unseen realities as possible, a notion not all that unlike Occam’s Razor in Western philosophy. Consequently, religious truth is best understood in terms of what is observable, that is, the language and ritual directives of the Vedas. From this it naturally follows that the orthopraxis of said rituals serve as positive affirmation of truth in and among the community of believers (Clooney 51-52).

Although continuity exists between Mimamsa and the other Hindu darsanas, it does depart rather significantly from the Vaiseshika, Nyaya, Samkhya, and Yoga schools of philosophical thought (Padhi and Padhi 221). Mimamsa is set apart primarily by its emphasis on the sole authority of the Vedic scriptures as the epistemological source of eternal truth. In order to preserve the eternal status of the Vedas, Mimamsa largely does away with the Hindu doctrines of creation and dissolution as well as rejects the notion of deities external to the Vedas, resulting in a deification of the holy scriptures themselves (Padhi and Padhi 249). Francis Clooney recognizes that appeals to gods would move the authority of the Vedas to a source external to and higher than the scriptures. As such, Mimamsa apologists refute the existence of any such deities so as not to displace the sole authority of Vedic scriptures (Clooney 51).

The Mimamsa darsana is but one of many attempts to articulate truth and the nature of the cosmos in the Hindu tradition. Its epistemological insight grants the scholar a privileged view of truth as it relates to the sacred Vedic literature revered by Hindus. Understanding Mimamsa’s emphasis and exposition of orthopraxy is essential to understanding the complex nature of brahminic rituals in Hinduism. Although Vedanta in all its continuity has taken over the mainstream of Hindu philosophical thought, a comprehensive understanding of Mimamsa is essential to understand the complex interaction of truth and ritual in the Hindu tradition, as it has been both understood and practiced throughout history and as such practices evolve today.

 

References and Further Recommended Reading

Arnold, D. (2001) “Of Intrinsic Validity: A Study on the Relevance of Purva Mimamsa.” Philosophy East & West, 51 (1), 26.

Bronkhorst. Johannes (2007) Mimamsa and Vedanta: Interaction and Continuity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited.

Clooney, Francis X. (2001) “From Truth to Religious Truth in Hindu Philosophical Theology.” In Religious Truth: A Volume in the Comparative Religious Ideas Project, edited by Robert Cummings Neville, 43-63. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Dasgupta, S.N. (1973) A History of Indian Philosophy. Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hiriyanna, M. (1983) Outlines of Indian Philosophy. Bombay: Blackie & Son.

Moghe, S. G. (1984) Studies in the Purva Mimamsa. New Delhi: Ajanta Publications.

Padhi, Bibhu and Padhi, Minakshi (2005) Indian Philosophy and Religion: A Reader’s Guide. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.

Prasad, H. (1994) “The context principle of meaning in Prabhakara Mimamsa.” Philosophy East & West, 44 (2), 317.

 

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Brahmanas

Brahmins

Hindu Epistemology

Nyaya School of logic

Vedanta philosophy

Vedic literature

 

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimamsa

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383181/Mimamsa

 

Article written by Nikolas Miller (February 2013) who is solely responsible for its content.

4. Vaisesika, b. Darsana, c. The Six Orthodox Systems

The Vaisesika Darsana

The Vaisesika darsana is a system of ontology – it is concerned with ordering and classifying the universe into fundamental components and categories. It is therefore pluralistic and also realistic. The term Vaisesika means “particularist” and is based on the term visesa, meaning “particulars” (Raju 143). Visesa is one of the seven categories into which Vaisesika thinkers organize the universe and figures prominently into its composition. The darsana was founded by Kanada, who authored the Vaisesikasutras circa 400 B.C. (Raju 143).

The doctrine espouses seven categories of reality, called padarthas, which comprise all objects that can be perceived through any means logical or sensory (Hiriyanna 231). They are dravya (substance), guna (quality), karma (motion or activity), samanya (generality or universality), visesa (particularity), samavaya (inherence) and abhava (negation) (Raju 143). Dravya, guna, and karma define the observable physical nature and capabilities of objects, while the existence samanya, visesa and samavaya is demonstrated by logical discrimination. They are also subdivided into further categories.

Dravya can be understood as “that in which qualities inhere” (Raju 143). Dravya is split into two classes of substance, the first of which comprise the nonmaterial world. Firstly there are dis (space), and kala (time), each of which is eternal, infinite and indestructible. There is the mind, manas, which is separate from consciousness and more accurately seen as the integration of the physical senses and the ability to focus on it or selective elements of it (Hiriyanna 231). It is believed to be atomic in scale as the elements are and also the sensory object responsible for emotion and some physical sensations (Raju 148). Finally, there is atman, variously translated as “Self” or “consciousness.” This is consciousness in the overarching sense that is separate and yet observant of the body, senses, mind and other constituent elements of a single person – for each individual, there is a unique atman (Raju 146). The atmans are regarded as infinite and not located in physical space.

The second class comprises the physical world. They are the elements (bhutas): prthivi (earth), apas (water), tejas (light/fire), and vayu (air), which are composed of infinitesimally minute particles called paramanu. Therefore, Vaisesika is also an atomic theory – it proposes the existence of indivisible, imperceptibly tiny component particles of all physical substances. Paramanu are too small to have mass. Accordingly, two combine into a dyad, three of which combine into a triad, which is the minimum observable particle with mass (Raju 145). In addition, each of the four types of paramanu have inherent qualities – prthivi corresponds to smell, apas to taste, tejas to colour and vayu to touch. These are explained as the universal phenomena that allow those senses to function – light, for instance, is seen as necessary to perceive colour. Akasa (aether) is also one of the elements, but is not atomic. It is singular, universal and indivisible like dis and kala. The first four are directly perceivable, but the fifth can only be inferred (Raju 144).

Gunas, or qualities, are traits inherent to dravyas. There are 24 in total: “[C]olor, taste, smell, touch, number, quantity, separateness, contact, disjoining, distance, nearness, knowledge, pleasure, pain, will, aversion and effort… heaviness, liquidity, oiliness, impression, fate [which includes merits as well as demerits, and therefore counts as two], and sound” (Bhattacharyya 143). The most significant are the dual qualities Bhattacharyya lumps together as “fate,” more accurately translated as merit (dharma) and demerit (adharma). These qualities are seen as inherent to substances, but it is possible to conceive of them separate of any object or substance. Colour can be conceived of formlessly, for example. As such, they are considered a distinct category of existence (Hiriyanna 232). Gunas may not have further gunas – there is a distinction made between a quality such as taste and a visesana (variance/mode), such as sweetness. Generally, the distinction is that things considered “qualities” that are attributed to gunas may be scaled – a taste may be sweet or sour, but sweetness and sourness cannot be conceived of without the category of taste – therefore they are subordinate to it (Raju 148).

Karma here refers to action, meaning types of movement. They are rising and falling motion, contraction, expansion and composite or combined motion (e.g. the motions of a human leg) (Raju 149). These are seen as properties of the dravyas as well, although dis, kala and akasa are said to lack motion as they are infinite (Hiriyanna 233).

Samanya translates as “generality” or “universality” and refers to the inherent identifying nature of things. That is, the generic nature of “dogness” that makes all dogs recognizable as such – the combination of dravyas, gunas and karmas unique to dogs (Kak 12). That combination is the same for all dogs – there is one samanya of dogs, which is distinct from the samanya of cows, and so on (Hiriyanna 233).

Visesa, particularity, is the quality that defines two otherwise indistinguishable objects as separate. It is not physically observable itself, but inferred from the fact that two identical things exist in the first place. This is not used lightly – it is only applied to truly indistinguishable objects, which are atomic in scale. While two physical objects can almost always be distinguished from one another by some variance in their gunas, this quality is what distinguishes one atom from the next (Hiriyanna 235). It is also how manases or minds are said to be distinct from one another, as they are also believed to be atomically tiny (Raju 152).

Samavaya proposes the relationships binding these other categories together in coherent manners. It means “inherence” and refers to definitional relationships between inseperable concepts. Substances have this relationship with qualities and with actions, as each (that is, the gunas and karmas) would cease to have value without the former. Likewise, for samanya to be distinct, there must also be visesa, so their relationship is inseparable and necessary (Hiriyanna 236).

The seventh category, abhava, is not an original component of Kanada’s Vaisesikasutras. The category of negation was added as a logical extension of the system. Essentially it addresses the absence of an expected phenomena, object or truth. For example, if an observer is seeking an object and finds that it is missing, the cognized absence of the object is considered a negation – the observer is conceiving of the absence of the object as a distinct phenomenon (Raju 153). Abhava outlines several distinct types of negation – pragabhava and dhvamsabhava refer to the conceptions of an object in the periods before it has been created (e.g. visualizing a home before it has been built) and after it has been destroyed (e.g. remembering a favourite childhood toy, or looking at the broken pieces of an object and recalling its former configuration) to name two (Hiriyanna 238).

The atomic explanation of the composition of the universe begs the question – how is the universe originated? What is the material cause of the paramanu themselves? Later Vaisesika proponents theorize the existence of a God, called Isvara, responsible for creating them – and therefore, the universe. God is conceived of with no identity in particular – it is not Siva, Brahma, etc. Rather, God is the product of logical inference – the universe itself must have a material cause, there appears to be physical order to it suggestive of a controlling “lawmaker,” and the apparent existence of moral order implies an entity dispensing justice (Hiriyanna 243). Kanada himself did not include God in the Vaisesikasutra, but later philosophers such as Sridhara and Udayana consider its existence necessary to explain origination (Hiriyanna 244).

 

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Raju, P.T. (1971) The Philosophical Traditions of India. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.

Hiriyanna, M. (1932) Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.

Bhattacharyya, S. (1961). “The Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika Doctrine of Qualities.” Philosophy East and      West, Vol. 11, No. 3: 143-151

 

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Atomism

Kanada

Mimamsa

Nyaya

Dravya

Atman

Manas

Gunas

Dharma and adharma

Rasavadam

 

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://www.unitedindia.com/laws_of_atoms.htm

http://www.preservearticles.com/2011082311421/essay-on-introduction-of-the-vaisesika-philosophy.html

http://www.publishyourarticles.net/knowledge-hub/philosophy/essay-on-padartha-and-abhava-according-to-vaisheshika-philosophy.html

http://nisargadatta-advaita-vedanta.blogspot.ca/2010/12/existence-and-non-existence-bhava-and.html

 

Article written by: Dan Phipps (March 2013) who is solely responsible for its content.

3. Nyaya, b. Darsana, c. The Six Orthodox Systems

The Nyaya Darsana

The Nyaya Darsana (or simply Nyaya) is one of the six orthodox Hindu schools of philosophy. It is highlighted as essentially being a school of logical thought, debate and reasoning. The word Nyaya itself may be translated as “right” or “justice” and therefore its practice, Nyaya-Sastra, translates as “the science of right judgement”. The school has a long history, with its first relevant text – the Nyaya-Sutras – purportedly composed by one Aksapada Gautama (or otherwise rendered Gotama) around 150CE (Vidyabhusana 1978:40-41).

 

Historical Overview:

Nyaya may be regarded as one of several schools of logic (Hindu and otherwise) that have flourished in and around the Indian subcontinent. Prior to the advent of Nyaya as a recognized branch of philosophy it was preceded by the Anviksiki (literally translated as philosophy) dating back as far as 1500BCE. This school bore a close resemblance to Nyaya as it was characterized by a rigorous study of the nature of the soul, and utilized similar technical principles such as tarka (reason), pramana (proof or evidences, and later means of cognition), and prameya (object of knowledge or cognition). So prominent was this system of philosophy that the Mahabharata records the exploits of the legendary Anviksiki practitioner Astavakra. This Anviksiki sage, on one occasion in his youth confounded a renowned sophist named Vandin, in a battle of wits that ended in Vandin’s death. Sometime during the 6th century BCE, the Anvisiki school divided into a school dedicated to pure philosophical speculation and a school dedicated to logic, which likely gave root to the Nyaya Darsana (Vidyabhusana 1978: 1,13-15).

 

The history and development of Nyaya as a self-contained school began roughly around 1CE. In this first century, the personality of Narada as a foremost expert in Nyaya-sastra becomes apparent as a character in the Mahabharata displaying expert deductive skills whose life intertwined with the likes of Krsna and the god Brahma. Although Narada was a legendary character there is speculation that he was also based on a real life practitioner of Nyaya-sastra (Naiyayika), to whom several aphorisms in Nyaya literature are attributed (Vidyabhusana 1978:40-44).

 

The formalisation of the school and its system of logic occurred as a result of the work of one Aksapada Gautama, who was the purported author of the Nyaya-Sutras. Significant mystery surrounds Aksapada as much of his persona is equated with far fetched myths involving the unusual title-name Aksapada derived from “aksa” meaning eye and “pada” meaning feet. One such myth details how Gautama, in a state of absent minded philosophical contemplation fell into a well, and upon his rescue was gifted with eyes in his feet to prevent further accidents due to his contemplative tendencies. It has also been speculated that Aksapada and Gautama may have been separate individuals that each contributed to the Nyaya philosophy [For a more detailed discussion of the identity of Gautama see Vidyabhusana (1975:i-xvi)]. Whatever the identity of the original author(s), the Nyaya-Sutras contain several quotations from Buddhist texts and references other Hindu philosophies which date to the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, which demonstrates that the work available today has been altered from its original form by these additions (Vidybhusana 1978: 46-50).

 

From the 4th century CE till the 13th century CE the practice of Nyaya-sastra became less popular as Buddhist and Jain forms of logic became more prominent and was in addition considered a heterodox philosophy generally (Vidyabhusana 1978: 152, 157). It was however during the 11th and 12th century CE that Nyaya Darsana became recognized as one of the six Saddarsana (orthodox schools or philosophies). This incorporation may have been due to the school actively supporting the authenticity and teachings of the Vedas. In addition this induction coincided with the recognition of the Naiyayikas as saivas or worshippers of Siva. These several factors likely contributed to the Nyaya school being adopted as an orthodox philosophy (Vidyabhusana 1978:152-156).

 

The latest significant contribution made to the Nyaya philosophy was the so called Navya-Nyaya or “New-Nyaya”. The philosopher Gangesvara Upadhyaya (or simply Gangesa) was purported to have composed the work called the Tattva-Cintamani. Ganesa, similar to the other contributors discussed, was himself mythologized as being gifted with a boon of logical reasoning by the goddess Kali due to a sacrificial offering. The Tattva-Cintamani was in use from the middle of the 15th century among Mithila Brahmans, and became popularized after the establishment of the Navadvipa University in 1503, which allowed its influence to spread throughout India. This text has been largely responsible for the adoption of the Navya-Nyaya variant of logic in pre-modern India (Vidyabhusana 1978:405-406).

 

The Classical Nyaya Logic System

The Nyaya-Sutras propose sixteen categories (padarthas) which are meant to represent all that can and does exist. These sixteen categories in order of discussion are instrument of cognition (pramana), object of cognition (prameya), doubt (samsaya), the objective (prayojana), familiar instance (drstanta), established tenet (siddhanta), member (avayava), disputation (tarka), ascertainment (nirnaya), discussion (vada), rejoinder (jalpa), cavil (vitanda), fallacy (hetvadhasa), quibble (chala), legitimate objection (jati) and deficiency (nigrahasthana) (Junankar 3). This extensive list has, however, been reduced by subsequent commentators on the Nyaya-Sutras to only include the first two categories, pramana and prameya. This is due to the following fourteen padarthas being included within the definition of pramana or prameya, as pramana pertains to the observer while prameya pertains to that which is observed. Therefore the investigation of pramana and prameya forms the foundation of the classical Nyaya Darsana. It is of note however that the Nyaya-Sutras ascribe equal importance and relevance to each of these sixteen categories (Junankar 11-12).

 

Pramana:

The concept of pramana as translated roughly means instrument or means of cognition and realization. According to the Nyaya–Sutras the padartha, pramana may be further broken down to four forms of valid observation; perception, inference, verbal testimony and analogy (Junankar 12; Vidyabhusana 1975: 2-4). To these four pramana subcategories (or pramanas) four other methods of pramana are suggested; historical tradition, inclusion, implication and absence. These additional pramanas are however dismissed as being included within the scope of the first four (Junankar 38-44). The pramana of perception (pratyaksa) is considered foremost of the four pramanas. It is defined by the Naiyayikas as a sensory cognition of an object that is not itself flawed. This pramana within the framework of classical Nyaya requires an interface or contact between the self and sensory input. Furthermore, the self or atman must make contact with the mind and the senses with the object in order for perception to take effect. This system substantiates a clearly materialistic nature to the philosophy that places personal witness above other forms of cognition (Junankar 47-51). These are based on the use of the five senses (touch, hearing, sight, sound and taste) to apprehend the object in question. However, it also substantiates the existence of and a difference between self (atman) and mind (manas), the self as a transcendent feature of consciousness beyond the mind which in turn produces cognitions from the sense-object contact (Junankar 55-68).

 

Inference, the second pramana, can be summarized as the act of re-measuring a perception. This is derived from the Sanskrit word anumana, which is comprised of anu meaning “after” and mana meaning “measuring”(Junankar 117). Analogy (upamana) or comparison comes next in the series and “is the knowledge of a thing through its similarity to another thing previously well known”(quoted from the Nyaya-Sutra,Vidyabhusana 1975:3). Lastly, verbal testimony (from sabda meaning sound) which is defined as “the instructive assertion of a reliable person”(quoted from the Nyaya-Sutra, Vidyabhusana 1975: 4) , which according to the Nyaya-Sutra is someone with authority to communicate with regard to the object in question.

 

Prameya:

Of the two simplified pardarthas there remains prameya, the object of cognition. The prameyas listed in the Nyaya-Sutras are the soul or self (atman), body (sarira), sense organ(indriya), objects of sense (artha), intellect or apprehension (buddhi), mind (manas), activity (pravrtti), fault or defect (dosa), transmigration (pretyabhava), fruit or result (phala),pain (duhkha), and release (apavarga) (Junankar 4; Vidyabhusana 1975: 5-7). Of these prameyas the self (atman) and release from pain (apavarga), are of special importance. According to the Naiyayikas the self is the first prameya perceived, and the perception of the self leads to the perception and cognition of the other prameyas. Release or apavarga is in fact the ultimate goal of the Nyaya-Darsana, and is characterized by a release of the self from pain and pleasure in the attainment of bliss (ksema) through tattvajnana or true knowledge of the nature of things. It must be noted that apavarga differs rhetorically from that of liberation or moksa, yet both are correlated with renunciation and have the same semantic meaning in this context. This accomplishment may be met, according to Nyaya philosophy by the obtaining of true knowledge of all things or a true knowledge of the padarthas (Junankar 391, 465-467;Vidyabhusana 1975: 1).

Nyaya System of Proof and Debate:

The system of proof in the Nyaya system revolves around the use of five “steps” or “limbs” which each demarcate a stage in reasoning. These may be illustrated in the following often quoted example [The following is modified from Matilal (1999:4)]:

1) There is a fire on the hill.

2) For there is smoke.

3) Wherever there is smoke, there is fire, as in the kitchen.

4) This is such a case (smoke on the hill).

5) Therefore it is so, there is fire on the hill.

The first step presents the conclusion or thesis, the second explicates some piece of evidence, the third gives an example to uphold the second step. The fourth step instantiates that the case under investigation is like the example mentioned in the third step. The fifth step then simply states the conclusion again as valid. This system of proof was designed not to reflect the essential structure of reasoning, but rather to act as a way of convincing others of the thesis presented in step one. These steps reflect the attitude of debate possessed by ancient Naiyayikas and the goals of their argument structure (Matilal 1999: 4-5).

 

The classical system of Nyaya debate (katha) according to the Nyaya-Sutras is divided into honest or truth seeking debate (vada), debate that should be won by any means necessary (jalpa) and finally a debate meant to irrevocably and harshly defeat an opponent (vitanda).   The first katha, may occur between a master and his students where truth is the ultimate goal, the second between equals where victory (vijaya) is the goal. The third is characterized by a wholesale attack or rebuttal of the opponents view without giving time or credence to the opponent in any form, the goal being to merely dispute the opponents view, not substantiate ones’ own. In fact the enactor vijaya may be considered in a case such that the philosopher possesses no true opinion and is only intent on defeating his opponents’ position (Matilal 1986: 83-86).

 

Navya-Nyaya and Conclusion:

The New Nyaya or Navya-Nyaya, was introduced as an advancement over the older school of Nyaya. Its system differs in key aspects from the original school of Nyaya, one prominent aspect being the array of padarthas.

 

The Navya-Nyaya system details only seven padarthas, as opposed to the sixteen detailed by Gautama in the Nyaya-Sutras (though later scholars reduced them to two, as previously discussed). These padarthas are, substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (kriya), generic character or genus (jati), ultimate difference or that which distinguishes one indivisible object from another (visesa), inherence or self relation (samavaya) and absence (abhava). While it is obvious that these categories differ from the padarthas of Gautama, the most significant difference is the last padartha, abhava or the lack of substance (bhava). The recognition of absence as a part of the system allows the Navy-Nyaya logician to attribute the absence of a quality to an object rather than simply not mention it when categorizing objects (Ingalls 37-38). While the theme of absence was explored in the older Nyaya school particularly in application to the apprehension of the absence of an object it was formally dismissed (Junankar 39).

 

Another interesting feature of the school is the idea employed by its practitioners that all things that exist are knowable, but not necessarily knowable to human minds. They affirm that if it (whatever “it” may be) is not knowable to human minds, it is at least knowable to a god. Hence there is both determinate and indeterminate knowledge. Determinate knowledge is described as that knowledge that allows for a specific object to be distinguished from other objects, which knowledge is usually expressible in language. Indeterminate knowledge on the other hand is held by Naiyayikas to be knowledge which cannot be expressed in linguistic terms as linguistic terms only refer to determinate objects, not indeterminate objects. They therefore affirm that one may only infer the existence of indeterminate knowledge (Ingalls 39).

 

While the Nyaya Darsana has played a significant role in the development of the religious landscape of India and surrounding areas, in modern times it is largely framed as a subject of the past. Still its impact remains relevant as a realist philosophical contributor to the shape of the philosophical schools of India (Matilal 1986: 1-15).

 

References and Further Recommended Reading:

Ingalls, Daniel H. H. (1988) Materials for the Study of Navya-Nyāya Logic. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Junankar, N.S. (1978) Gautama: The Nyaya Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Matilal, Bimal K. (1986) Perception: An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge. New York: Oxford University Press.

Matilal, Bimal K. (1999) The Character of Logic in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Vidyabhusana, Satis Chandra (1975) The Nyāya Sutrās of Gotama. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.

Vidyabhusana, Satis Chandra (1978) History of Indian Logic: ancient, mediaeval and modern schools. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

 

Related Topics for Further Investigation:

Uddyotakara

Vatsyayana

Ragunatha

Vaisesika Darsana

Narada

Anviksiki

Nyaya-Prakarana

Buddhi

Astavakra

Apavarga

Dignaga

Tattvajnana

Moksa

 

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic:

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/423058/Nyaya

http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Shad-Darshanas~-Six-Systems-of-Hindu-Philosophy-2.aspx

http://indiaphilosophy.wordpress.com/tag/nyaya-darshan/

http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Darsana

 

Article Written by: Jordan Pepper (April 2013) who is solely responsible for its content.

Iconography

Murtis

Murti is a Sanskrit term that typically refers to sacred images of Hindu deities. However, the term also represents an anthropomorphic embodiment or a manifestation of different forms of a deity that illustrate the infinite attributes and aspects that are beyond the perception of our senses (Sugirtharajah 74). In this way, murtis serve as images of deities that do not only help Hindus establish and enhance a legitimate relationship with God, but it also allows the worshipper to concentrate the mind and attend to the deity with a deep sense of respect, adoration and meditative awareness. In fact, the Hindu ritual tradition darsana, which translates to ‘seeing’, is a central form of worship in which crowds of people in India gather at temple sights to simply stand in the presence of a murti and gain the blessings of the divine by seeing the deity and be seen by it. Understanding the importance of murtis in the Hindu religion allows one to realize that the act of worship in the religion is not just a matter of making devotional offerings and praying, but it also involves a deep focus on expressing honor and affections for the deities (Eck 36).

The origin of murtis goes back to Vedic times but evidence of this cannot be verified with solid affirmations because many of the scripts and literature of the Indus Valley culture is still a mystery until today (Banerjea 42). However, many scholars have debated over the question of whether Vedic Indians made images of their gods (murtis) and whether they knew and practiced image worship or not. From a negative perspective, scholars like Max Muller argued that image worship was not known during the period of Vedic Indians. In fact, other scholars went as far as to say that images, idols, and temples were not even mentioned in the Rgveda (the earliest existing literature of the Indo-Aryans). From the complete opposite perspective however, other scholars used specific passages, mainly hymns that contained anthropomorphic descriptions of different deities (Banerjea 48), from the same Rgveda text to suggest that the practice of making murtis was well known among the early Vedic culture (Banerjea 43). Though the issue is still controversial and not much is of certainty because very little literature of the Vedic period survived, it can be argued that it was not until the fourth century CE that the notion of murtis became to be systematically and officially accepted (Tartakov 6240). It is important to note however, that prior to the fourth century murtis worshipping may have been practised by early settlers. [For further details on the origins and development of image worship (murtis) in India see Banerjea (2002)]. Why the notion of murtis even began has many reasons, a few of which are as follows: first, murtis took the same role that the sacred fire (agni) takes in Vedic rituals to create a union with the divine. That is, just as the fire was a way of transporting sacrifices from a worshipper to the God Agni, a murti was the medium in which the worshipper transferred his devotion with a specific deity. Secondly, murtis were also a way of practicing worship in one’s own home, especially for women at the household stage of life (Banerjea 78). And lastly, murtis were established for temples and public altars where it became common to use them in public worship, festivals, and celebrations.

Certainly not all murtis depict the same god nor does it depict every god in the same way. In fact, the same deity can have more than one murti that reflects different aspects, features, and roles of it. For example, the god Siva is depicted in his daksinamurti as a teacher; but in another murti, he is standing as Pasupati protecting animals and humans (Kramrisch 4323). Additionally, the metaphysics of these murtis are of great importance because Hindus use a wide variety of distinct features that are significant to the deity it represents. In fact, the precise shape, posture, dimension, material, colour and gender vary from one murti to another, and each of these aspects symbolizes a (usually divine) feature of the deity that it characterizes. There are also specific instructions and implements that must be followed when creating a murti, such as the system of measurements and units of proportions for each body part. “The appropriate postures, the appropriate number of arms, the gestures of the hands, the emblems and weapons to be held in the hands, and the appropriate animal mount” (Eck 39) are all specified to be done in certain ways in ancient Hindu texts such as the silpasastras (‘texts of artists’). [Also see ‘canonical manuals of Hindu religious art’ for further information about the instructions of creating a Murti]. Also, in the ancient Vedic text, Bhavisyapurana, seven main types of materials from which murtis can be used are mentioned: stone, metals such as gold, silver and copper; wood, earth or clay, sand, paint, and gems (Banerjea 209). In this way, it is evident that the notion of murtis certainly has a complex system and very detailed work is put in every feature of a murti. Hindus do not simply paint an image of a god and worship it, which is a common accusation usually applied to Hindus by Western religions, but they developed a whole system that is based on the human sense of vision (going back to the idea of darsana) (Eck 33). In fact, the essence of this system has roots which are deeply connected to the divine realm and it cannot simply be ignored or dismissed when learning about Hindu worship.

Throughout India, Ganesa (or Ganapati) is one of the most popular Hindu deities that is worshipped and is represented with many forms of murtis. The name Ganesa simply translates to ‘the lord of hosts’ and he is worshipped for being wise and having the power to remove obstacles; thus many Hindus invoke his blessings at the beginning of any life endeavours such as starting a new career or even buying a new house (Kramrisch 4326). Even though Ganesa is visible in numerous different murtis, there are common features that are usually employed in his classical murtis that make him unique. To begin with, he is in the form of a human but has the head of an elephant; this half human half elephant form represents the cosmic and human dimensions of existence (Sugirtharajah 93). His large round human-like pot-belly is the entire world of creation and it is also a symbol of Ganesa’s prosperity. His elephant head is sometimes disfigured where the tusk is broken and most commonly he is depicted with only one tusk, but sometimes more. More importantly however, according to many sources when the Mahabharata was transmitted by Badarayan Vyasa, he asked Ganesa to record down the oral transmission. So Ganesa is said to have broken off his tusk to write with so that in return Vyasa would narrate the epic in one continuous sitting without pausing; and that is why many of his depictions show a broken tusk (Bae 46). Furthermore, in Mumbai many Hindus worship the god Ganesa each year for ten days leading up to the final festival. In the festival, a large murti of Ganesa is brought to be celebrated and offered prayers to while at the same time ritually disposing the murti in a body of water (Eck 42). This divine festival again illustrates that murtis are an embodiment that become a valid vehicle to allow for a transitory union with the divine, but once the deity departs the murtis, it is no longer appropriate or valid to worship it and in fact it must be disposed of in certain ways (See Bae 45-50).

Another popular deity that is commonly worshipped throughout India is Visnu, the preserver and sustainer of the universe. Like Ganesa, Visnu is popularly depicted in a variety of murtis where his posture is sometimes standing, sitting or reclining. Actually, in South India each murtis, with a different posture, occupies its own space in many of the three-storied temples, and are sometimes each worshiped separately (Kramrisch 4325). The common features in most of his murtis however are his anthropomorphic form and the four arms with each holding a white conch, a rotating wheel, a golden mace and a lotus flower. As is usual with most Hindu murtis, each of these items has an enormous significance and symbolizes the main characteristics of the god. The white conch signifies the origins of existence and the elements of creation (Bae 103), the rotating wheel is a symbol of the cycle of time (i.e. the cycle of birth and death) and it is also believed that Visnu has used the rotating wheel to conquer demons and preserve the world, hence he is known as the sustainer of the universe (Sugirtharajah 79). In the third hand, the golden mace is held and it is symbolic for Visnu’s power and authority as it is a weapon of destruction; and lastly, the lotus flower is the purity and perfection as it is commonly used with many Hindu goddesses (Bae 103).

Ganesa and Visnu are only two common deities among the thousands other gods and goddess that are worshipped in Hinduism, and already numerous types of murtis have been created just to embody and manifest each deity. This clearly indicates that the concept of this type of worship is regarded with a high degree of devotion, seriousness and importance; in fact, great respect, honor and devotion must be firmly present when treating and worshipping any murti of any deity. Moreover, a murti of a supreme lord “may be seen, bathed, adorned, touched, and honored” (Eck 35) by any of its devotees. In fact, it is common to find in a home of a strictly devotional family, sometimes even in temples, that murtis are treated in the same way that a servant would treat his master. That is, “gestures such as bowing, kneeling, prostrating, and in the Hindu world, touching the feet of revered superior” (Eck 35) are consistently performed during a worship. Another important practice that is also mandatory during the worship of a murti is making offerings of sacrifices such as flowers, food, cloth, and incense; also, some deities require that the sacrifice be of meat, liquor, and/or be smeared with blood. The act of making these offerings became a significant part of worship because it was inherited down from the Vedic fire ritual of Agni; in which throwing sacrifices into the fire was a mandatory part of the ritual. Overall, the notion of murtis is an important one in the Hindu religion; in order for sincere worshipers to establish a true union with the divine deity, they must be able to firmly focus their attention on that deity. The way that this state of concentration can be perfected is through the human sense of vision, in which a Hindu is able to see the divine in a physical form and more importantly also be seen by it.

 

 

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Bae, James H. (2003) In a world of Gods and Goddesses: The Mystic Art of Indra Sharma. Novato: Mandala Publishing.

 

Banerjea, Jitehdra Nath (2002) The Development of Hindu Iconography. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.

 

Eck, Diana L. (1981) Darsan, Seeing the Divine Image in India. Chambersburg: Anima Publications.

 

Kramrisch, Stella (2005) “Iconography: Hindu Iconography” In Lindsay Jones, eds. Encyclopedia of Religion, p. 4323-4327. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA.

 

Sugirtharajah, Sharada (1994) “Hinduism” In Jean Holm and John Bowker, Picturing God, p. 70-109. New York: Pinter Publishers.

 

Tartakov, Gary Michael (2005) “Murti” In Lindsay Jones, eds. Encyclopedia of Religion, p. 6239-6240. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA.

 

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Agni

Badarayan Vyasa

Bhavisyapurana

Daksinaumurti

Darsan

Ganesa/ Ganapati

Hindu worship

Hindu deities

Iconography

Incarnation

Lotus flower

Mahabharata

Murtis

Sacrifices/offerings

Silpasastras

Visnu

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://londonmandir.baps.org/worship/murti-puja-image-worship-in-hinduism/

http://londonmandir.baps.org/worship/sacred-images/

http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Hindu%20Primer/murtisthapana.html

http://hinduism.iskcon.org/practice/308.htm

http://scriptures.ru/india/murtis/indexen.htm

http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/worship-in-a-hindu-shrine/3619.html

http://1stholistic.com/prayer/hindu/hol_hindu-worship.htm

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Hinduism

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/worship/worship.shtml

http://0go.galegroup.com.darius.uleth.ca/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3424502134&v=21&u=leth89164&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w

 

 

 

Article written by: Maye Awad (March 2013) who is solely responsible for its content.

d. Some Noteworthy Temples, South Indian

The Aihole Temples

The Aihole temples are a complex of ancient structures located in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka. Aihole was initially the center of the early Chalukyan culture until the great Pulakesi I moved the capital east to Badami. However, it was in Aihole where the Chalukyans began to create their own style of temple and over 100 of these sites can still be found there today. The building of temples took place over two phases with the first beginning in the early 6th century and the second phase not happening until the 12th century. The architecture of these temples was unique in the fact that it combined northern styles (nagara) with the techniques used in southern India (dravida). When used together this style was labeled vesara and was prominent in the temples built throughout the areas surrounding Aihole (Hardy 2001:181).

Of the temples located at Aihole the most famous is generally considered the Durga temple, a very photogenic structure that is dated to the middle of the 8th century A.D. (Bolar 164). The current name of the temple comes from one of two possibilities, either an image of Mahisasuramardini (the goddess Durga) or from a nearby fort (durga) (Bolar 164). It is likely that the name is more associated with the nearby fortress and this is the common consensus among modern scholars today. The agreement comes from the fact that this temple was likely dedicated to Visnu as opposed to the other temples that are focused on the worship of Siva (Hardy 1995:67). Architecturally, the temple is mainly of Dravidian design with a few exceptions, such as the superstructure that sits atop the temple. This feature, known as a sikhara, is situated directly on the flat nave roof above the sanctum of the temple. It would appear that this was added much later after the original construction of the building and would be a reasonable theory as there was an influence of northern styled design well after the Chalukyan culture (Lippe 14). Other notable features of this temple that make it stand out at Aihole are the intricate carvings along the railings of the balconies as well as the images found on the niches of the unique wall structures. “The pillars of the inner porch are, in addition, decorated with full and three-quarter roundels, containing small mithunas, with lotus-petal bands with guana-fiezes and with pearl-chains hanging from lion-masks, in low relief” (Lippe 14). The Durga temple has square pilasters that frame enclosed niches, and these niches have gallery panels that were apparently added after the original construction (Lippe 15). “Some of the niches are surmounted by elaborate sukanasa gabels or by miniature shrines; others (above the yalis) by inverted makara-torana” (Lippe 15). These important features of the Durga temple give it a unique appearance and photogenic qualities that allow it to be such a central site at the Aihole complex of temples.

The next most famous of temples at Aihole is often considered to be Lad Khan, the oldest structure at the complex with construction being dated to the middle of the 5th century A.D. (Lippe 11). Originally this temple was built for the worship of Visnu but it was later dedicated to the sun god Suryanarayana. The design of this temple can be considered a square ground plan with two square groupings of pillars within the main square (Lippe 11). However there is what is suspected to be a later addition of a porch that does not match up sufficiently with the original scheme (Lippe 11). “The porch of the Lad Khan temple is unusually wide as it had to be accommodated to the square temple; it is three pillars deep and four pillars wide, corresponding to the four hall pillars. The porch pillars are heavy and square with simple brackets (as are those of the roof shrine)” (Lippe 13). The porch itself was probably added relatively shortly after the temple was constructed with dates being considered around 550 A.D. (Lippe 13). “The railing of the porch which forms the back rests of the benches inside, is decorated with a motif of vases with foliage framed by pillars and knotted bands; we also notice rampant lions leaning against pilasters; a feature recalling Pallava pillars of the Rajashima period (695-722)” (Lippe 13). These features are a defining element of many temples at Aihole and can be considered a foundational shift in the architecture that was created by the early Chalukya culture.

Another notable temple that is found at the Aihole complex is the Huccimalli-Gudi. The name can be literally translated as “Mad-Malli’s temple”. “The temple can be dated to the seventh century, possibly even before the Pallava occupation” (Lippe 18). An important aspect about the Huccimalli-Gudi is that it is a homogeneous structure but it still displays features found in other temples such as the porch railings and pillars of the Lad Khan (Lippe 18).  The sculptured gargoyle-like pranala, as well as the apparent vestibule, are examples of how Huccimalli-Gudi undertook many additions and changes throughout its existence (Lippe 18). “The medallion with a Natesa on the Dwarf, on a shallow and rudimentary gable-projection, is loosely fitted to the “northern” superstructure which rises from the invisible sanctum” (Lippe 18). The medallion is likely a later addition because the Huccimalli temple is believed to have been originally designed for Vaishnava worship (Lippe 18). The Huccimalli-Gudi can therefore be considered a good example of how the architecture in Aihole was going through a shift in conventional design.

These three temples are all model cases of how the Chalukyan dynasty created their own style of architecture by combining different techniques used in both northern and southern India. These styles are reflected throughout the area at Aihole and are indicative what was going on at the time of their construction. When studied further, researchers can gather information about how the tradition and culture itself shifted. Whether it was purely how a temple was being dedicated and presented, or what people were occupying the territory, the temples at Aihole provide an illustrious history religious tradition in that area.

 

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

 Bolar, Varija R. (2010) Temples of Karnataka: An Epigraphical Study (From the Earliest to 1050 A.D.) “Surya (Sun) Temples and Images”. New Delhi: Readworthy Publications Ltd.

Hardy, Adam (1995) Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation. “Early Chalukya Temples”. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, Indira Gandhi National Center for the Arts.

Hardy, Adam (2001) Tradition and Transformation: Continuity and Ingenuity in the Temples of Karnataka. Berkeley: University of California Press on Behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians.

Lippe, Aschwin (1969/1970) Archives of Asian Art. “Additions and Replacements in Early Chalukya Temples”. Honolulu: University Of Hawai’i Press for the Asia Society.

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Badami

Karnataka

Mandalas

Meguti Jain temple

Pattadakal

Pallava

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://www.deccanherald.com/content/54212/aiholes-stories-stone.html

http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/archaeology/inscriptions/inscriptions.htm

http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/ancient/mahabharat/mahab_vartak.html

http://www.templenet.com/Karnataka/aihole.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aihole

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalukya_Dynasty

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badami_Chalukya_Architecture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aihole_inscriptions

Article written by Grady Allison (Spring 2013), who is solely responsible for its content.

Ganesa, Hindu Festivals

Ganesa Chaturthi (Ganesh Chaturthi)

Ganesa Chaturthi

Ganesa Chaturthi is an annual festival celebrating the birth of the god Ganesa. It is celebrated on the chaturthi, or the “fourth day” after the new moon, in August/September (Hinduism Today 196). Ganesa is an elephant headed, short, pot-bellied god who is the immortal son of Siva and Parvati [Also known as Shakti]. Ganesa is said to have only his right tusk, as his left one was chopped off. For this he is known as Ek Danta (one-toothed) (Verma 44). Ganesa is believed to be the destroyer of obstacles (Vighna Vinashaka); the harbinger of happiness and joy (Sukha Kartha); the absorber of sorrow and misfortune (Dukha Hartha); and one who makes wishes come true (Siddhi Vinayaka) (Bhalla 18).

Ganesa is usually seen sitting on a padma lotus flower. He has four arms, each holding a different weapon. He carries around an axe (parasu), lasso (pasa), hook (ankusa) and a lotus flower. On his left side sits his vahana (that which carries) a mouse (Musakavahana). This mouse is usually seen eating a modak (sweet dumpling). His trunk is usually curved to the left and he is wearing a dhoti (cloth wrapped into pants). His head represents atman and his corpulent body the things of the earth (Brockman 226). He is the supreme lord of dharma and we pray to him for guidance and direction of our lives.

There are two myths on how Ganesa was born. The most common one suggests that “ disliking Lord Siva’s surprise visits during her baths, Parvati formed a human figure out of clay and water into a man’s figure and gave it life” (Verma 43). This figure had come to be known as Ganesa. Ganesa’s mother, Parvati, then put Ganesa on guard as she went to go bathe. Oblivious he had a father, Ganesa, came upon an Aghori-like man holding a trident. This man was none other than his father, Siva. Upon Siva’s arrival from samadhi, he tried to enter the house to see Parvati, but Ganesa would not let him in. Siva enraged, takes his trident and cuts off Ganesa’s head. As Parvati returns from her bath she sees her son headless. She questions Siva as to what had happened and explains to him that Ganesa was their son.

To ease Parvati’s grief, Siva promised to cut off the head of the first living thing he would see and attach it to Ganesa’s body (Bhalla 18). The first thing Siva came upon was an elephant, therefore, Ganesa has an elephant’s head. Ganesa was thus restored to life and rewarded for his courage by being made lord of new beginnings and guardian of entrances (Bhalla 18).

The second myth is about Parvati and Siva having a son together. Every god had come to see this new born except one, Sani (Lord of Saturday). Sani desisted from it because he was under the curse that, whomsoever he had beheld will be burnt to ashes (Verma 44).  Parvati had thought that if everyone came to see Ganesa, then Sani should have to. Sani then agreed to see Ganesa, but as soon as he did, Ganesa’s head burnt and fell off. Parvati, being short-tempered, was starting to give Sani a shraap (curse). But Brahma interrupted and said that if they had found a head, it would not be to late to reattach it. So Visnu set forth on his Garuda [Vishnu’s mount who has the body of a bird and the head of a human] in search of it and the first creature he found was an elephant sleeping beside a river. He cut off its head and it was fixed on Ganesa’s body (Verma 44).

People who are starting a new beginning worship Ganesa, because he is known as the “Lord of new beginnings” and “Lord of Obstacles”. Ganesa Chaturthi is a festival that many people are engaged in before they start their new beginnings. Ganesa Chaturthi is a festival that lasts 10 days. Initially a private celebration, it was first turned into a public event by the Indian leader Lokmanya Tilak who used it as a means of uniting people in the freedom struggle against British rule (Bhalla 18).

Two or three months before the Chaturthi, people start making idols of Lord Ganesa. These idols can range from three quarters of an inch up to 25 feet. They then bring the idol to their house and set it on an elevated platform. The murti (idol) is then placed facing east in the padma (lotus flower) with uncooked rice underneath. The priest then invokes life into the idol amidst the chanting of mantras. This ritual is called pranapratishhtha (Bhalla 18). Followers of Ganesa then decorate their house to make it appealing to the lord. Author of Loving Ganesa states, “we decorate the temple and home shrine with banana leaves, sugarcane and strings of mango leaves, making it look like a small forest” (Subramuniya 300). Pandit Arunachalam notes,

“In Karnatak, India, young people make a ritual of seeing 108 Vinayakas on this occasion, so they go about visiting their friends’ and relatives’ houses on this day…the worship of Ganesa on this day is supposed to confer advancement in learning to the young student and success in any enterprise undertaken” (Festivals of Tamil Nadu, p.110-121)

Right after the devotees bring food, fruits, and sweets to offer to Ganesa. Modak (sweet dumpling) is often offered to Ganesa, for it is Ganesa’s favorite thing to eat. During this time special pujas (prayers) are done. The idol is anointed with red unguent (rakta chandan). Throughout the ceremony, Vedic hymns from the Rig Veda and Ganapati Atharva Shirsha Upanishad, and Ganesa stotra from the Narada Purana are chanted (Bhallah 18). One popular chant is “Ganapati Bapa Moriya, Purchya Varshi Laukariya” (Oh father Ganesa, come again early next year). Devotees of Ganesa usually fast during this ten-day period if they have a wish to ask for.

The Ganesa Visarjana (a Sanskrit word meaning “departure”) takes place after the 10 days of the Ganesa Chaturthi. In some places, the Visarjana is done on the same day as the Chaturthi. The clay idol is taken from the house to the river and then it is submerged. In bigger cities, idols up to 25 feet are taken to the sea while chanting “Ganapati Bapa Moriya, Purchya Varshi Laukariya.” They then immerse the idol into the water. “We honor His departure with a grand parade, as we carry Him on a palanquin bedecked with flowers and accompanied by puja, music, dancing and celebration” (Subramuniya 301).

The Ganesa Chaturthi has started to become a global festival. In 1988 Ganesa broke new ground in his public relation when Visarjana was held in the United States. It was the first large scale interdenominational public Hindu festival held in US history (Subramuniya 303). In San Francisco, California almost 2000 people had come together on September 25 to celebrate Ganesa Chaturthi. The idols were submerged into the Pacific Ocean. Following this, places like Sydney, Australia had started celebrating as well.

The Ganesa Chaturthi is a very important festival in the Hindu religion. It signifies the birth of Lord Ganesa and it is not only celebrated in India, but it is celebrated worldwide. From the early ages up till now, the deity Ganesa has been known as the Lord of Obstacles. He is the one who is always worshiped at the beginning, and ending of a prayer. Ganesa Chaturthi is a very beautiful event that everyone should one day be a part of. It is very enjoyable and to sum it up into a sentence: It is a ceremony of fond farewell to a beloved god (Subramuniya 301).

Bibliography

Bhalla,  Kartar Singh   (2005)   Let’s Know Festivals of India.   New Delhi:   Star Publications.

Gupte,   B.A   (1994)   Hindu holidays and ceremonials. New Delhi:   Asian Educational Services.

Editors of Hinduism Today   (2007)   What Is Hinduism: ‪Modern Adventures Into a Profound Global Faith. India: Himalayan Academy Publications.

Subramuniyaswami,   Satguru Sivaya   (2000)   Loving Ganesa: Hinduism’s Endearing Elephant-Faced God.   India: Himalayan Academy Publications.

Brockman,   Norbert C.   (2011)   Encyclopedia of Sacred Places.   USA: ABC-CLIO.

Verma,   Manish   (2007)   Fasts and Festivals of India.   Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd.

Related topics for further investigation

Ganesa

Siva

Parvati

Vinayaka

Modak

Parsurama

Brahma

Vishnu

Trident

Musakavahana


Article written by Ajay Parekh (Spring 2012), who is solely responsible for its content.

Hindu Festivals

The Rath(a) Yatra

The Ratha Yatra

The Ratha Yatra, also known as the Ratha Jatra, is the Hindu chariot festival. It takes place every year during the Hindu month of asadha, which is in the months of June and July. The Ratha Jatra is a festival of renewal. The deities are renewed and therefore it is said that the people, the land, and the kingdom are also renewed (Apfell Marglin 199). The main deity involved in this festival is Jagannatha, who presides over the temple in Puri, a city in the state of Orissa in Eastern India (Beck 116). During this festival Jagannatha, his brother Balabhadra, and their sister Subhadhra are taken on chariots from the main temple in Puri to the Gundica temple, about two miles north of the main temple (Apfell Marglin 207). Approximately every twelve years, or whenever the extra lunar month occurs in the month of asadha, an enlarged version of the festival takes place. This enlarged festival is called the festival of the new body. During the festival of the new body, the old wooden deities are replaced by new ones. It is said that “the old deities ‘die’ and new ones are ‘born’” (Apfell Marglin 199). The main participants in Ratha Jatra are the daitas, devadasis and other temple servants. Daitas are the ‘blood relatives’ of Jagannatha and the devadasis are the wives of Jagannatha. These are the only two kin of Jagannatha while all others are servants (Apfell Marglin 199). The king also plays a major role in the rituals involved in this festival. He acts as the sacrificer and in turn, he receives renewal and prosperity for his kingdom and his people (Apfell Marglin 200). The Ratha Jatra consists of more than just the journey from the main temple to the Gundica temple. There are many festivals and rituals that occur to make up the entire Ratha Jatra.

The first festival of Ratha Jatra is the bathing festival, known as Snana Jatra (Mahapatra 21). This festival takes place two weeks before the pilgrimage journey on the full moon day of the month of Jyestha (May-June). Daitas move the images of Jagannatha, Balabhadra, Subhadhra and Sudarsana one by one from the inner sanctum of the temple to the bathing platform, called the Snana Mandap or Snana Vedi (Apfell Marglin 200; Mahapatra 21 -22). This procession includes gongs, large decorative umbrellas and fans (Apfell Marglin 200). The bathing platform faces the main square and is raised approximately 30 feet so it is easily visible from the street (Apfell Marglin 201; Mahapatra 22). Once the images are on the bathing platform, temple servants retrieve water and place it in 108 pots. Some of the water is poured on deities from above while other temple servants throw it from below. The four images are ‘bathed’ at the same time. The water that has run over the images is blackened by the paint. Some temple servants collect this water and walk through the crowd. The crowd eagerly tries to get a few drops as the water is seen as the leftover of the deities.  After this bath pilgrims, who are now allowed on the platform, climb up in an attempt to touch the images. Pilgrims are then cleared from the platform and a representative of the king, or the king himself, sweeps the platform with a gold handled broom; a ritual called “sweeping” (Apfell Marglin 201). At the same time, temple servants sprinkle the platform with water and sandalwood powder. The deities are then put into “Ganes dress” which consists of the images being covered by large masks in the shape of an elephant. The curtain that is usually drawn is now open making this the only time of the year that cooked food is offered to the deities in public. The deities are offered the regular sixteenfold offering (Apfell Marglin 201). After the offering, people are once again allowed onto the platform. After this, the images are taken back into the temple in the same manner as they were brought out. This time, however, they are placed in the corridor between the inner and outer sanctum instead of in the inner sanctum. They are set against wooden braces in a semi-reclined position. This marks the end of the bathing festival and the beginning of the period of illness (Apfell Marglin 202).

The period of illness takes place during the dark fortnight. During this time, the gate to the dancing hall is closed. Only the daitas and the Pati Mahapatra, a member of the cooking division, are allowed into the area where the deities are reclining (Apfell Marglin 202). All auspicious sounds are stopped during the period of illness. This includes the banging of gongs and sounding of trumpets and conch shells. Very few people visit the temple during this time, as it is silent and deserted (Apfell Marglin 202). The offerings to the deities during this time are said to be in “tribal fashion” (Apfell Marglin 203). Instead of cooked meals, daitas bring raw fruit and milk products. They peel and taste the fruit to make sure that it is ripe before serving it to the deities. The peels are not removed from the room, but left on the floor. The deities are also served an herbal medicine. The daitas stay with the deities, eating and sleeping there. The images of the deities have been damaged during the bathing festival so they are repaired during this time. The old cloth is replaced with new cloth and covered with a coat of resin and paint. Once this outer layer has been repaired, one of the daita paints the details of the deities’ faces, except the pupils of the eyes. The painter’s work does not begin, however, until the night of the thirteenth day. On the twelfth day of the dark fortnight, the daitas bring the king plates with the old cloth covering from the deities, one for each member of the king’s family. The cloths are the leftovers of the deities. The king then gives the daitas saris, which are tied around their heads at the main gate of the palace. Once these saris have been tied around their heads, the daitas go for a viewing of the king at which they bow to the king. The king then instructs the daitas how to properly manage the car festival. On the thirteenth day of the dark fortnight, some pasted chalk and gum, which will be the first coat of paint on the images, is offered to the king (Apfell Marglin 203). The king then once again advises the daitas how to smoothly run the festival. The painter daita then begins his work and finishes painting by the fourteenth day of the dark fortnight. The fifteenth day marks the end of the period of illness. The dancing hall is opened and pilgrims are allowed into the temple for ‘the viewing of the new youth’ of the deities (Apfell Marglin 204).

After the viewing of the deities, the deities and the temple are purified. Following the purification, three puja pandas paint the pupils on the deities, which is called the ‘festival of the eye’ (Apfell Marglin 204). After the painting of the pupils, a representative of the king comes to perform a welcoming ritual. After this welcoming ritual, the deities are given traditional offerings. The images are still in a reclining position, as during the period of illness (Apfell Marglin 204). The next day, the second day of the bright fortnight of asadha, marks the beginning of the car festival. Pilgrims go to the sea to take a purifying bath and then return to the temple. During this time, Vedic Brahmins perform rites on the chariots to purify them. The chariots themselves are built new each year. The chariot built for Jagannatha is called Nandighosa. It is 33 feet cubits high, has sixteen wheels, painted yellow and covered in red and gold cloth. The chariot of Subhadhra is called Devadalana. It has twelve wheels, is just over 31 feet cubits high, painted black and covered in red and black cloth. The chariot of Balabhadra is called Taladhvaja. It has fourteen wheels, is just over 32 feet cubits high, painted blue and covered in red and green cloth (Mahapatra 17). The wooden images of the deities are moved in a procession from the temple. The procession is preceded by beating gongs. The first deity to be brought out is the wooden pillar of Sudarsana, which is run around the chariot of Subhadra three times before it is carried up to the platform. Balabhadra is brought out next, followed by Subhadra and finally Jagannatha. A group of about twenty temple servants carry the images (Apfell Marglin 205). Daitas and the cooks carry the actual images while puja pandas and simharis hold thick silk ropes, which are tied to the images (Apfell Marglin 205-206). In front of the images are two rows of men dressed in bright red sashes and beating gongs. There are also people bearing umbrellas and fans and others blowing trumpets and conch shells. Once the images are placed on the platforms, everyone waits for the king. The king is brought from the palace on a chair carried by men and is followed by the palace elephant. The king is given a gold-handled broom. He walks around the platform three times, sweeps it once and sprinkles it twice with perfumed water. This sweeping ceremony is called the Chera Panhara (Mishra 146).  He does this on all three chariots in the same order that they were brought out. He then returns to the palace in the same way that he came. After this, the ramps to the platforms are removed and four ropes are fastened to each chariot. The car caller gives the call to start pulling. When this call is given, the crowd pulls on the ropes, moving the chariots (Apfell Marglin 206). As the chariots move through the streets, things are thrown onto the chariots from the crowds. Once all three chariots reach the Gundica temple, the cars remain there until an auspicious hour when the deities can be moved from the chariots to the temple. This may be up to 24 hours later. During this time of waiting, pilgrims surround the chariots chanting prayers, making offerings, and climbing onto the platforms to touch the deities (Apfell Marglin 207).

The deities are carried from the chariots to the temple in the same way they were transported from the main temple (Apfell Marglin 207-208). Once inside the inner sanctum of the temple the deities and the temple are purified. The deities stay at the Gundica temple for seven days. On the second day of their stay, Laksmi is brought from the main temple on a palanquin carried by brahmin temple servants to the Gundica temple. The procession includes torches, gongs and a conch blower. Once they reach the Gundica temple, Laksmi’s palanquin is placed in front of Jagannatha’s chariot. Here a brahmin performs a short worship of Laksmi. After this worship, the devadasis sing a song and perform a ritual with the daita in charge of the image of Jagannatha (Apfell Marglin 208). Laksmi is then brought into the inner sanctum of the temple. After a brief ritual in the inner sanctum, Laksmi is returned to the main temple. The other three chariots are turned to face south, in the direction of the main temple (Apfell Marglin 209).

On the tenth day of the bright fortnight of the same month, the deities begin their journey back to the main temple, called the Bahuda Jatra (Mishra 148). This journey is conducted in the same way as the first journey, but takes from the tenth to fourteenth or fifteenth day. This journey is slower because most of the pilgrims leave Puri immediately after the first journey, as well as the poor road conditions often caused by the rainy conditions common during this part of the year (Mitra 129). The images are transferred to the chariots, the king sweeps the platforms, and the crowd pulls the chariots. The chariot of Jagannatha again makes a stop on the journey, this time at the king’s palace. Here “the meeting of Laksmi and Narayana” takes place (Apfell Marglin 209). Once this ritual is complete, the chariot of Jagannatha is pulled to the main temple. A sixteenfold offering is then given on all three chariots and on the evening of the eleventh day, a special offering is given. At this time, the deities are given ‘the golden dress’ which consists of solid gold forearms, hands and feet that are attached to their unfinished arms and legs. They are also given golden crowns adorned in gold jewelry. After the deities are dressed in this way, pilgrims walk around the chariots. The gold dress is then removed and the deities are taken back into the temple (Apfell Marglin 210). The three deities are returned to the inner sanctum, Jagannatha going through another ritual first. Purifying rights take place and after this, the temple is once again open for regular worship (Apfell Marglin 211).

References and Further Recommended Readings

Apffel Marglin, Frédérique (1999) “Time Renewed: The Place of the Daitas and Devadasis in the Famous Ratha Jatra Festival of Puri.” Journal of Vaisnava Studies 7(2), 131-173.

Beck, Guy L. (2005) “Indian Subcontinent: India: CITIES: Puri.” Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World 5. 116-117.

Jagannatha. (2002) Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend, Thames & Hudson. Credo Reference. Web. 10 March 2012.

Mahapatra, Sri Sara Ch. “The Car Festival of Lord Jagannath.” Car Festival of Lord Jagannath, Puri. Ed. Sri Sarat Chandra Mahapatra. Orissa, India: Sri Jagannath Research Centre, 1994. 15-31. Print.

Mishra, Rajkishore. “Rituals and the Role of Functionaries during Chariot Festival.” Car Festival of Lord Jagannath, Puri. Ed. Sri Sarat Chandra Mahapatra. Orissa, India: Sri Jagannath Research Centre, 1994. 15-31. Print.

Mitra, R.L. “Ratha Jatra.” Car Festival of Lord Jagannath, Puri. Ed. Sri Sarat Chandra Mahapatra. Orissa, India: Sri Jagannath Research Centre, 1994. 127-140. Print.

Related Topics

Balabhadra

Daitas

Devadasis

Gundica Temple

Jagannatha

Laksmi

Pati Mahapatra

Puja Pandas

Simharis

Subhadra

Sudarsana

Noteworthy Websites Related to Topic

http://rathjatra.nic.in/

http://www.swaminarayan.org/festivals/rathyatra/

http://www.harekrsna.com/philosophy/caitanya/rathayatra.htm

Article written by Kayla Giebelhaus (Spring 2012), who is solely responsible for its content.

Hindu Festivals

Raksa Bandhan(a)

RAKSA BANDHAN FESTIVAL

The Hindu tradition is marked by several celebratory festivals; some are celebrated throughout all of India, while others are celebrated only regionally. Of the most significant to brothers and sisters is the festival of Raksa Bandhan. The festival is important to Indian families because it re-affirms and strengthens the unique bond between brother and sister. This bond is paramount within Indian family dynamics, chiefly because the relationship between brother and sister is second to the mother and son relationship (Upadhyaya 197). Raksa Bandhan takes place on the first full moon day of Sravana (July –August), the dates of all Hindu festivals correspond directly with the Hindu lunar calendar (Singhal 10). According to some scholars, certain days are thought to have a special mystical connection in which the God or Gods being worshiped are closer than ever to the Hindu world (Hinduism Today 59). Festivals are planned meticulously around astrological inauspicious times [For more in depth explanation of auspiciousness and inauspiciousness see Rodrigues (2006)].  Festivals and rituals are an important part of the Hindu tradition, and can be traced back thousands of years; indeed some of the great Indian epics make reference to festivals still celebrated today.

The term Raksa means “safety” and Bandhan means “bond’, therefore the term Raksa Bandhan means safety bond (Colon 11). In the days leading up to Raksa Bandhan festival, sisters make or buy a rikhi, (a coloured bracelet or thread) that is tied around her brothers right wrist (Hinduism Today 57). In ancient times sisters made silk or cotton bracelets that were dyed with turmeric (Lannom 31). Turmeric has been used for centuries throughout India for medicinal purposes, food preparation and fabric dyeing; it is yellow in color and is indigenous to Asia. Today, rikhi have become more decorative and elaborate with different coloured string, charms, and pompons attached to them. Rikhi can be purchased at the local market place or in speciality shops which only sell rikhi. The day before the festival begins, mothers, grandmothers, aunts, and sisters prepare special foods to be consumed on the day of Raksa Bandhan. Almost more important than the rikhi are the sweet treats the sisters present to their brothers, this is often referred to as “making the mouth sweet” (Lannom 31). On the morning of Raksa Bandhan, brothers and sisters dress in their best clothing and pray to the family deity. Next, a small tray is prepared by the mother of the household with sweets, rice for ceremony purposes, and a red powder made from kumkum (red turmeric powder). Kumkum is used by the sisters to draw a vertical mark on the brother’s forehead, also known as tilak-the mark of auspiciousness (Singhal 10). The highlight of Raksa Bandhan festival is when the sister ties the rikhi around her brother’s right wrist. By accepting the rikhi, brothers vow to always honour and protect their sisters (Bezbaruan 52). The sister in turn prays for protection and good fortune for her brother in the upcoming year. At this time, brothers present their sisters with a special gift of money or jewellery; thus demonstrating their love, appreciation and devotion to their sister.

During Raksa Bandhan, if a sister has no brother, she may use a cousin, relative or close family friend. From that moment on, they will refer to each other as “rikhi brother and rikhi sister” (Lannom 31). The role of a “rikhi brother” is taken with great seriousness; it is considered a bond the brother and sister will share for a lifetime. The bracelet tying ceremony is not limited to age or geographical location; in fact, grownups including grandmothers continue to celebrate Raksa Bandhan with their brothers. Brothers living abroad will receive a rikhi in the mail along with a letter wishing good health, safety, and success for the upcoming year. Often the wife or female relative of the brother will take the place of the sister and tie the rikhi to his wrist (Lannom 31).

The history of Raksa Bandhan can be traced back to ancient times. It is not entirely clear when Raksa Bandhan entered into the Hindu tradition, however scholars will agree it holds an important place in Hindu practice. Evidently, the custom of giving rikhi is foretold in the Great Indian Epic Mahabharata (Lannom 31). According to Klostermaier (2007) legend states, “Indra was saved from the demon Bali through the magical armlet that his wife had tied for him” (Klostermaier 280). This may signify a sister tying a rikhi to her brother’s wrist as protection for her him. Similarly, Bhojpuri folk songs emphasize the sister- brother relationship and their special bond of affection. Yet, the relationship of mother and son remains chief (Upadhyaya 197). Nevertheless, brother and sister relationships are much more unique than brother to brother. First, sisters are taught from a very young age by their elders to always honour and respect their brothers. Second, brothers do not see sisters as a challenge to their authority (Upadhyaya 197). Finally, an important value in Indian society is the duty of men to be leaders. As a result, Indian men take on the role of protector and assume responsibility for the females in their family (Ishwaran 34). By celebrating Raksa Bandhan, brothers renew the responsibly for taking care of their sisters, and sisters offer prayer and well wishes for their brothers.

Raksa Bandhan is an important festival in the Hindu tradition. It signifies the unique bond between brother and sister. It re-affirms the love and devotion between brother and sister, and serves as protection throughout the year. The sister promises to pray for the safety and well-being of her brother throughout the year, while the brother promises to protect and love his sister always. The festival has evolved from a simple tradition, to a great festival celebrated throughout India with rikhi becoming more elaborate and decorative. Raksa Bandhan is an important part of the Hindu tradition.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Bezbaruan, M.P. (2003) Fairs and Festivals of India.Volume Three. New Delhi: Gyan

Colon, Connie (2006) “It Starts with a Thread.” Skipping Stones.18(5), 10-11.

Holy Festivals. (2007) Hinduism Today, 29(1), 54-59.

Ishwaran, K (1968) Shivapur A South Indian Village. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.

Klostermaier, Klaus (2007) A Survey of Hinduism.Albany: New York Press.

Lannom, Gloria (2007) “Honor you Siblings.” Faces. 24(2), 31.

Rodrigues, Hillary (2006) Hinduism: The eBook an online Introduction. Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books Ltd.

Singhal, Neelima (2005) “Celebrating Raksha Bandhan.” Highlights for Children. 60(8), 10-11.

Upadhyaya, Hari “Family Structure Depicted in Bhojpuri Folk-Songs.” Folklore 78(2), 197.

RELATED TOPICS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION

Sravana

Auspiciousness

Inauspiciousness

Hindu lunar calendar

rikhi

Turmeric

Kumkum

Tilak

Mahabharata

Indra

Bali

Bhojpuri folk songs

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://www.raksha-bandhan.com/

http://hinduism.about.com/od/rakhi/a/rakshabandhan.htm

http://www.hinduism.co.za/tilak.htm

Article written by: Jodie Flamand (March 2012) who is solely responsible for its content.

d. Some Noteworthy Temples, South Indian

Minaksi (Goddess and Temple)

Minaksi Goddess and Temple

There is a myth that tells of Minaksi’s origins. According to it King Malayadhvaji Pandya and his wife needed to produce a male heir so that he could be the next successor of the city of Madurai (Harman 44).  Malayadhvaji Pandya and his wife’s religious devotion and good works did not seem to be enough to change their childless state, so they decided to conduct a series of asvamedha or horse sacrifices. Through these horse sacrifices Malayadhvaji Pandya and his wife hoped that they would please the deities and be given a son. Unfortunately, the horse sacrifice is not always successful in the birth of a son, and after ninety-nine unsuccessful horse-sacrifices the god Indra intervened. Indra informed Malayadhvaji Pandya that if he wanted a son that he should perform “the sacrifice which brings forth a son” (Harman 45). The king took Indra’s advice, but the result of the sacrifice was unexpected. Instead of the sacrifice producing a son, it gave Malayadhvaji Pandya and his wife a three year old daughter. This upset the King for the sole reason that this daughter was not normal; she was considered to be a freak, because she had three breasts. Malayadhvaji Pandya complained to God and the king’s complaint did not go unheard. A heavenly voice of Siva responded:

[Oh King! Treat your daughter as though she were a son:

Perform for her all the rites as specified in the Vedas.

Giver her the name, “Tatatakai.” Crown her queen.

And when this woman, whose form is golden, meets her Lord, one of her breasts

will disappear.

Therefore, out your mind at ease.

In this way, Siva graciously appeared in the form of words spoken from the sky (Harman 45).]

King Malayadhvaji Pandya took the advice and trained his daughter as though she was the male heir to the throne.  She was crowned queen, but shortly after the king dies. After the king passes away, his widow Kancanamalai enters the temple to worship “The Mother” (Annai) who is interpreted as “Minaksi” (The Fish Eyed Goddess) (Harman 45). It is in the temple that Kancanamalai, the queen’s mother, is informed that Siva’s consort Parvati was born in the form of Tatatakai/ Minaksi.

Minaksi is a goddess who is regarded as pure energy. In her benevolent form, as Siva’s bride she is Parvati, and in her terrifying form, as a bloodthirsty killer she is Kali (Brockman 326).  Minaksi rules Pandya as an unmarried queen for quite some time, which is not proper for an Indian monarch. Minaksi’s mother complains about her unmarried state, but Minaksi assures her mother that there are better things to do than get married. She wants to conquer the world, and once she has successfully conquered the world she will marry.

Minaksi met Lord Siva when he was a great yogi meditating on Mount Kailas and she was on a pilgrimage (Brockman 326-327):

[The moment She saw him Her [third] breast disappeared.

She became bashful, passive, and fearful.

She leaned unsteadily, like the flowering branch of a tree under the weight of its

blossoms.

Her heavy dark hair fell on Her neck.

She looked downward, toward Her feet, with collyriumed eyes that were like

kentia fish.

And there She stood, shining like lightning, scratching in the earth with Her toes (Harman 47).]

As Minaksi stood in front of Lord Siva, her minister Sumati pointed out that the ancient prophecy that was made at her birth has been fulfilled. Siva tells Minaksi to return to Madurai where he will marry her (Harman 47). When Minaksi arrives in Madurai she finds that the city is beautifully decorated, and that everyone is ecstatic about the wedding. The wedding preparations include the assembly of the bride’s garments, preparing the food, and sending out wedding invitations to an extensive guest list.

At the ceremony, Visnu gives the bride to Siva. [Siva blesses and partakes of the sweet drinking mixture. Brahma feeds the sacrificial fire with clarified butter. Siva ties the wedding necklace on his bride, pours parched grain into the fire, places the bride’s foot on the grinding stone, and points out to her the pole star, which symbolizes steadfastness (Harman 47).]

The marriage of Minaksi to Lord Siva represents many changes. The first significant change was the disappearance of her third breast. This disappearance meant that for the first time she was going to be treated as a woman. This was an important change because growing up her father always treated her as a male heir and she acted as a male heir. She conquered the world and ruled powerfully over Madurai.

The Minaksi temple is located in Madurai’s city center and it was built to honor the sacred marriage of the goddess Minaksi and the god Siva (Brockman 326). The Minaksi temple was built from 1623 to 1655, but its roots are over 2000 years old (Brockman 326). The original temple was built by Kulasekara Pandya, however most of what is seen on the temple today was built by the Nayaks in the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.  It is one of the largest temples in India with its measurements being approximately 850 feet long by 720 feet wide. The outer wall is about 20 feet high to protect the temple and the royal god Siva and goddess Minaksi who reside within it (Fuller 2). The temple contains twelve gopurams, four of which are the main entrances to the temple [Stevens]. Surrounding the temple is a series of expanding, ‘concentric’ squares (Fuller 2).

All South Indian temples representing Siva have two temples in one; the Minaksi temple is no different. There are separate temples for Minaksi and Siva who is locally known as Sudaresvara (The Beautiful Lord) (Hudson 33). Minaksi’s temple is southwest of Sudaresvara’s, which means both temples face east and positions the goddess to the god’s right. Minaksi being situated on Siva’s right is the usual positioning of their images during temple festivals (Fuller 3).

Inside the temple there are more than 30, 000 statutes (Brockman 326). The two major ones are Siva’s mount (a bull named Nandi), and his lingam. Both of which are located at the center of the courtyard (Brockman 326).  Every evening before the temple closes, a palliyarai pujai (‘bedchamber worship’) takes place. The priest removes Minaksi’s nose-jewel from her main image, which symbolizes the transfer of power to the smaller image of Minaksi that is always kept in the bedchamber (Fuller 11). The palliyarai pujai is a procession led by drummers and a brass ensemble carries an image of Siva to Minaksi/Parvati’s bedroom to consummate their union (Brockman 327). It is at this time that the divine couple is offered food and lamps are waved in front of them. Two rituals are also performed at this time (Fuller 11). It is only at night that the god and goddess are united and seen as lovers.

In the morning, the priest’s first task is to worship at Siddhi Vinayaka’s shrine, which is located near the entrance of the Minaksi’s temple. Next, he goes to the bedchamber where the god and goddess are located and woken by song. The chamber is opened and the god and goddess are offered food and lamps are waved before the images. It is at this time that the priest goes to Minaksi sanctum and replaces her nose-jewel. The replacing of her nose jewel transfers her powers back to her main image. Minaksi is worshiped and any devotees present have their first sight of the goddess, a most auspicious vision to begin a new day (Fuller 12).  The priest then returns Siva back to his temple, where the image is placed in its chamber and worship is then performed before the main linga. There is no specific ritual at this time, however, the gods powers are believed to return. It is at this time that the priest takes a sip of milk that had been offered to the deities, and then the rest is distributed to the attending devotees (Fuller 12).

The Minaksi temple indicates the importance of Devi worship, and the transformation of Minaksi from a powerful warrior queen who conquered the world, to a shy and modest woman when she met Siva for the first time (Rodrigues 284).

There are six major annual festivals that are held at the Minaksi temple. These six festivals last between ten and twelve days. For each festival a flag is raised on the main flagstaff in Siva’s temple for the entire duration of the festival. The only exception is when Ati Mulaikkottu is celebrated. Ati Mulaikkottu is a festival celebrated only for Minaksi, which means that the flag is raised in the goddess’s temple (Fuller 17).

Minaksi and Siva’s marriage is celebrated each year in the month of Citra (April-May) (Hudson 33). The god and goddess wedding is a symbol of the joint power that they hold over the city of Madurai. Minaksi and Siva are mounted on a golden bull, and carried though the city on a carved temple chariot (Brockman 327). Shortly after the festival of Siva and Minaksi’s wedding there is a festival for the journey of Visnu. Even though these are two different celebrations, in the minds of many devotees these two festivals are not separate and distinct; instead they form a single festival cittirai peruvila (Husdon 35).


REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Brockman, Norbert C. (2011) Encyclopedia of Sacred Places. ABC-CLIO.

Dowson, John (1979) A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology. London: Routledge& Kegan Paul.

Fuller, C.J (1984) Servants of the Goddess. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Harman, William P. (1989) The Sacred Marriage of a Hindu Goddess. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.

Hudson, Dennis D. (2010) Krishna’s Mandala: Bhagavata Religion and Beyond. Oxford University Press.

Hillary Rodrigues, Hinduism – the eBook (2007). Published by Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books.

Stevens, Michael (2006) The Sri Minaksi Sundaresvara Temple. www.madurai.com

Related Research Topics for Further Investigation

Siva

Visnu

City of Madurai

Lord Sundaresvara Madurai

Mount Kailasa

The Cittirai Peruvila Festival

Siddhi Vinayaka’s Shrine

Palliyarai Pujai Worship

Ati Mulaikkottu Festival

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://www.templenet.com/Tamilnadu/Madurai/madurai.html

http://www.indiaplaces.com/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minaksi

Article written by Lauryn Dzioba (Spring 2012), who is solely responsible for its content.

d. Some Noteworthy Temples, South Indian

Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple (Srirangam Temple)

Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam

The largest temple in India is located on the island of Srirangam located on the Kaveri River.  The island resides in the southern part of the larger Indian continent near the city of Trichy, which is located in Tamil Nadu.  According to the temple’s website, Srirangam Temple is “the foremost of the eight self-manifested shrines (Swayam Vyakta Kshetras) of Lord Visnu. It is also considered the first, foremost and the most important of the 108 main Visnu temples (Divyadesams)” (Srirangam Temple History).  The temple goes by several names including Srirangam temple and Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, the latter a result of the temple being dedicated to the Hindu deity, Raganatha, a reclining version of the god Visnu.  It is considered to be in the Dravidia style of temple architecture (Urwick 58).  In its history, it has had important political implications on the region, and has withstood Muslim military occupation in the early fourteenth century (Spencer 21).  In modern day India the temple is regarded as the largest active Hindu temple in the world and is home to several festivals, the most important of which is Vaikunta Ekadasi, which attracts thousands of visitors annually (The Hindu).

As are many things in the Hindu tradition, the origins of the Srirangam temple are rooted in the Hindu epic, the Ramayana.  It is said that in Rama’s quest to save his beloved Sita he employs the help of Vibhisana.  Vibhisana is the brother of Rama’s adversary, the demon god Ravana, and agrees to assist Rama only when he determines that Rama’s cause is the nobler of the two (Bastin 47).  The legend continues that after Ravana is defeated, Vibhisana accompanies Rama and Sita back to India for their wedding where he receives the gift of a special Visnu shrine and sets out on his return journey to Lanka.  On this return home Vibhisana decides to stop by the banks of the Kaveri River to rest.  The form of Visnu (Ranganathaswamy) in the shrine seemingly decides that he likes the spot and refuses to be moved from it. Vibhisana is crestfallen at the god’s decision, so Visnu offers to face south in the direction of Lanka, and thus the south-facing Srirangam temple is established (Hari Rao 17-21).  While such claims to ancient origins are not generally employed by religious studies scholars, author Rohan Bastin offers the story in his examination of a conflict in the late 1990’s between the Sinhalese and the Tamils (Bastin 48).

One of the most comprehensive outlines of the temple physically is provided by the author William Urwick.  The temple itself looks as if it were a walled off town instead of a religious temple and according to the temple’s website covers one hundred and fifty six acres.  Urwick asserts that the temple’s lands comprised “seven miles in circumference, and includes many bazaars and streets of Brahmans’ houses” (Urwick 58).  There are twenty one gate towers or gopuras and each is flanked by massive granite pillars, above which rests “pyramids of elaborate stone carving towering up to the height of two hundred feet” (Urwick 58).  Inside these massive structures one finds a pillared hall with a flat stone roof supported by one thousand columns of granite, each with a figure carved into it.  These figures range from men and horses to men mounted upon rearing horses spearing tigers.  Beyond that is the central shrine which is surmounted by a golden dome. Near to this four sacred elephants are stabled, and a staircase leads up to the flat stoned roof (Urwick 58).  While almost all of the structures endured throughout the centuries unharmed, there was some damage done when the Muslims raided the temple’s lands in the fourteenth century.

Early political relationships of the temple with Delhi Sultans are both crude and easy to comprehend.  During the three decades that the Khilji sultans occupied the throne (from 1290 C.E.-1320 C.E.) of the northern Delhi kingdoms a policy of aggressive expansion and raiding into the southern peninsula of the Indian continent was popular foreign policy.  The all important Hindu dynasty Vijayanagar had not yet been founded and the only legitimate political entity in the region was severely weakened by internal conflicts (Spencer 20).  This meant that when the raiding armies of the Muslims came to Srirangam there was really no organized resistance to attempt to stop them from taking what they wanted.  The Muslims were focused on raiding the temple for immediate economic boon.  Plunder such as elephants, jewels and gold were largely preferred (Spencer 19).

The Muslim raids that struck the temple in 1311 and 1323 C.E. had a “highly disruptive effect” upon its administration and services (Spencer 20-21). Although the temple was not destroyed in its entirety, the Muslims did cause extensive damage during their respective visits.  Fire damage to gopurams was common.  Many images of gods and saints were destroyed, including Visnu’s gold staff.  One scholar notes that, perhaps during the lengthy second stay of the Muslims, certain wooden structures were simply left to deteriorate (Spencer 21).  Before the Muslims’ arrived for the second raid the entrance to the inner sanctum was blocked with large stones. This protected the reclining form of the idol Raganatha albeit at the expense of interrupting services (Spencer 21).  The southward expansion of the Islamic frontier into peninsular India, of which these raids constituted only one rather dramatic manifestation, set in motion certain wider changes in the political structure of southern India, transformations which drastically altered the temple’s relationships with the outside world.  The temple also would finally begin to see the upswing in the coming Vijayanagar period.

­­ By 1371 C.E. Vijayanagar generals had restored the sacred images to Srirangam that the Muslims had destroyed, but temple administration was in shambles and it had lost most of its lands as well as other endowments during the last half-century. The kings of this period began making a habit of granting generous gifts of land and other valuables back to the temple, many of which had been obtained militarily (Spencer 25).  This was done in large part because large generous gifts could be rewarded with ceremonious honours from the temple.  These titles conferred honor and legitimacy upon hero-kings and were used to establish political and ideological ties to a region, resulting in the potential for vast empires. (Spencer 25).  The success of the Vijayanagar kings in this aspect helped to consolidate their regime.  This also gave a momentum to the growing strength of the Tengalai school of Srivaisnavism.  This patronage would eventually lead to this Southern school of Hinduism being the predominant at Srirangam.

The most important function of the modern day Srirangam temple is its hosting of many Hinduism festivals.  One such festival was created during the aforementioned Vijayangara dynasty and is named after the famous king Virupanna udayer (Younger 626).  According to the temple’s website Lord Ranganatha was brought to the sanctum sanctorum in 1371, shortly after the temple had been liberated from the Muslims.  The sanctum was in poor condition and so in 1377 Virupanna donated seventeen thousand gold coins to cover the cost of renovations.  After renovations were completed in 1383, and during the Chithrai festival, Virupanna donated fifty two villages to the temple.  The festival occurs during the Tamil month of Panguni (roughly March-April) and is synonymous in the modern day with the Chithrai festival.

The most important festival for the temple is the Vaikunta Ekadashi.  As one educational poster notes:

“To those with a pure heart, the gates of Vishnu’s spiritual world are always open. But on a precious few days, it is said, that passage is open to all, allowing devotees to more easily reach Vaikunta, the abode of Lord Vishnu, Supreme God to hundreds of millions of Hindus.  This is the essence of Vaikunta Ekadashi, a festival marked by fasting, devotion and pilgrimage to famous temples, when devotees draw closer to God in a most personal way” (Hinduism Today)

The festival takes place during the Tamil month Margazhi (December-January). Vaikuntha Ekadashi celebrations last twenty one days and are divided into two, ten day parts known as pagal pathu (morning part) and Ira pathu (night part).  Lord Vishnu as Lord Ranganatha is adorned in an armor of diamonds (rathnaangi) and is brought to the Thousand-Pillared Hall from the sanctum sanctorum through the northern gate known as Paramapada Vasal, the gate to Vaikunta. This gate is opened once in a year, only on the Vaikuntha Ekadashi day.

The temple’s website describes this occasion as the peak point of all festivals conducted in the temple.  “On this day of days; Sri Ranganatha becomes a virtual king and is known as Sri Rangaraja… Devotees, engaged in non-stop bhajans, fast throughout the day and keep endless vigil during the whole night, singing and dancing to the beat of cymbals” (Srirangam Festivals).

The Hindu Blog explains that the significance of Vaikunta Ekadasi can be traced back to the Padma Purana. It is said that the Purana indicates Lord Visnu took the form of ‘Ekadasi’ – female energy – to kill the demon Muran. This happened during the month of Margazhi. Impressed by ‘Ekadasi,’ Lord Visnu told her that whoever worships him on this day will reach ‘Vaikunta’ (heaven).   Like all Ekadasi days, devotees fast on this day and observe a vigil the whole night. Some people indulge in meditation, Japa and singing of Hari Kirtan. Rice is avoided during Ekadashi days as it is believed that the demon Mura finds a dwelling in the rice eaten on Ekadasi day.

Although the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is the largest active temple in the Hindu religion, it has undergone changes in its role over time.  The Muslim occupations in the fourteenth century left the temple a shell of its former self and it was not until the Vijayanagar Hindu dynasty restored much of the temple’s wealth and lands that it really got back to being a key component of the region.  Nowadays the temple serves mostly as just a place of worship and it plays hosts to several important festivals, the biggest of which is the twenty one day Vaikunta Ekadasi.

References and Future Recommended Reading

Bastin, Rohan (2005) “Hindu Temples in the Sri Lankan Ethnic Conflict – Capture and Excess.” Social Analysis, pp. 45-66.

Hari Rao, V. N. (1976) History of the Srirangam Temple. Tirupati, Sri Venkateswara University Press.

Hari Rao, V.N. Koil Olugu; The chronicle of the Srirangam Temple With Historical Notes Madras: Rochouse and Sons.

Parker, Samuel K (1992) “Contemporary Temple Construction in South India: The Srirangam Rajagopuram.” RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics, pp. 110-123.

Smith, Bardwell L (1978) Religion and the legitimation of power in South Asia. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill.

Spencer, George (1978) “Crisis of Authority in a Hindu Temple under the Impact of Islam.” In Religion and the legitimation of power in South Asia. Bardwell Smith ed. Leiden: Brill. pp. 14-27.

Urwick, William (1891) Indian pictures, drawn with pen and pencil. London: The Religious Tract Society.

Willis, Michael (2009) The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual: Temples and the Establishment of the Gods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Younger, Paul (1982) “Ten Days of Wandering and Romance with Lord Rankanatan: The Pankuni Festival in Srirankam Temple, South India.” Modern Asian Studies, pp. 623-656.

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Delhi Kingdom

Srirangam

Srivaisnavism

Tamil Nadu

Raganatha

Rama

Ravan

Vaikunta Ekadasi

Vibhisana

Vijayanagar dynasty

Visnu

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://www.hindu-blog.com/2006/12/significance-of-vaikunta-ekadasi.html

http://www.hinduismtoday.com/pdf_downloads/pagers/Hindu-Festival_Vaikunta-Ekadashi_broadsheet-color.pdf

http://www.scribd.com/doc/56922684/Hari-Rao-History-of-Srirangam-Temple

http://www.srirangam.org/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srirangam

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Ranganathaswamy_Temple_(Srirangam)

Article written by: Kyle Cantelon (March 2012) who is solely responsible for its content.