Monthly Archives: June 2008

c. The Bhagavad Gita, General Studies

The Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad-Gita is an influential and important scripture in Hindu culture, as it is an aid to attain moksa, or self-realization. This scripture is highly regarded by cultural and political nationalists in Europe, American and India and people like Mahatma Ghandi used the Gita as a main source of inspiration to situations like the independence movement in India (Edgerton ix).. Like that of Christ in Christianity, the Buddha in Buddhism, or Allah in Islam, Hindus believe that Krsna is our real self (Easwaran 28). Krsna, who is the speaker of the Gita is incorporated in many aspects of this scripture. Some scholars say that the Bhagavad-Gita should be looked at as a religious, devotional poem (Edgerton 106). This “devotional poem” was recorded to be compiled into 700 verses divided into eighteen sections. This scripture has been devoutly followed by some Hindus, and has been looked at by some scholars to be a metaphorical text that has became to be known as a key Sanskrit scripture of Hinduism.

The Bhagavad-Gita is contained in the Hindu epic Mahabharata, an influential scripture that is often called the great epic of India. The Mahabharata is much larger than that of other texts; it is the longest composition of literature of the ancient world as it contains approximately 100,000 couplets (Katz 2). This epic poem is considered to be the first to articulate the concept of bhakti, or devotion to God. The specific focus of bhakti in the Mahabharata is towards Visnu who is incarnated into a human form. Acts of devotion towards Krsna are seen not only within the Mahabharata, but more importantly in the Gita. “The Song of God” is advice from Lord Krsna to Arjuna on the battlefield in the Kuruksetra War fought between the five Pandava brothers and 100 Kauravas. As Arjuna’s charioteer, Krsna guides him in his decision making, helping the five brothers win the war. Through the Gita, Arjuna became Krsna’s disciple as he took his teachings, applied them to his own life, and shared them with others. In parallel to the Pandava/Kaurava battle, Krsna insists that we must actually fight the battle against the suffering that we have within ourselves.

The Bhagavad-Gita was produced in the framework of the Mahabharata “to bring a solution to the dharmic dilemma of a war” (Buitenen 5). This creation of scripture that came from this milieu provides a “religious and philosophical context…which can be dealt with” (Buitenen 5). Hindu interpretations of the Gita suggest that as Arjuna had done, if we are able to let the Lord into our hearts, he can outline the highest goal of knowing our true self. This self contains two aspects which are explained in the Gita. The two principles are the “soul” or “self” and the “non-soul” (Edgerton 140). The soul does not have any qualities; it is unitary and does not change or partake in action. The “non-soul” or prakriti (material nature) is what performs actions, and changes unlike the “soul” (Edgerton 140). In this text, prakrti is explained to be developed throughout the body and as part of God. These elements of the self are discussed by Krsna in the Gita to his student Arjuna and is discussed that through bhakti (devotion) is one able to achieve this part of self.

Devotion to God is not discussed in the beginning of the Gita; however the “middle chapters of the work it gradually becomes more prominent” (Edgerton 173). Some scholars have indicated that the Bhagavad-Gita explains that God cancels prakrti as an aid and benefit to his devotees and brings them salvation through divine grace (Edgerton 174). The Gita opens up devoted worship to everyone; highest realization is not selected to certain classes (Rodrigues 163). So long as Krsna or any other deity is sincerely worshiped can a person be “rendered a saint through devotion” (Rodrigues 162). One clear example of a man who lives his life to devote himself to God is Arjuna.

In the Gita, Arjuna is related to other people that have the tenancy to want to lead a life for their selves, not taking into account of what the Lord wants. This scripture contains teachings of Krsna to Arjuna that mention the selfish desire that can threaten a person’s life if one were to not take care of it. Krsna is mentioned to have ultimate control over all universal affairs and it is only through him can a purified materially contaminated consciousness be achieved. Material nature, or prakrti “works under [his] direction” as it works eternally through his control. Prakrti is developed throughout the body, senses and mind, and is believed to be a part of God’s own nature (Edgerton 141). Because of this, Krsna urges through Arjuna that he is to give him devotion to the significant and real life that he has given; particularly through meditation.

Karma yoga (selfless action), jnana yoga (spiritual wisdom) and bhaki yoga (love and devotion) are three types of meditation that are mentioned in the Gita. Some scholars suggest that the central principle to attain moksa is “action characterized by indifference…but it is always an indifference in action” (Edgerton 166). Kama, or attachment to actions creates a bondage to the “laws of causality,” but the highest attainment of the self can be made without this bondage to actions (Rodrigues 161). Jnana yoga on the other hand means “discipline of knowledge” and involves the concentration and meditation to know the Self (Edgerton 166). In the Gita, Krsna identifies himself with the highest realization, or absolute reality. The last yoga mentioned in this scripture is bhaki yoga which means love and devotion; by “devoted love of God one can attain knowledge…and so indirectly the salvation which comes thru this knowledge” (Edgerton 173).

The Gita stresses that through these stages, a follower is then able to be free from karma to gain moksa; as long as their actions do not liberate them. One must act without attachment from the outcome that comes with it. Through these stages can one reach full awareness towards Krsna, who in the Gita identifies himself with this ultimate realization.

The Bhagavad-Gita provides a clear description of Krsna as man, God, and Brahman as the absolute reality and redefines the yoga paths to attain the highest stage/goal of Hindu spiritual endeavour: moksa. The Gita explains to its readers that it is important for one is to find reason; to trust in God through devotion in order to reach this state of spiritual endeavour. This important Hindu scripture is “justified by the fact that millions of men have found religious comfort…and salvation thru it;” and it is because of this reason among many other factors has the Bhagavad-Gita become known to be a key Sanskrit scripture of Hinduism (Edgerton 194).

REFERENCES AND RURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Buitenen van J.A.B. (1981) The Bhagavadgita in the Mahabharata. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Edgerton, Franklin (1972) The Bhagavad Gita. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Katz, Ruth (1989) Arjuna in the Mahabharata. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.

Rodrigues, Hillary (2006) Introducing Hinduism. UK: Routledge.

Related Topics for Further Investigation

The Mahabharata

Arjuna
Bhakti yoga
Bhakti
Dharma
Jnana yoga

Karma yoga
Kaurava
Krsna
Kurukshetra War
Mahatma Ghandi
Pandava

Prakrti

Sankalpa
Sanskrit

Visnu

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita/

http://www.bhagavad-gita.us/

http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/D_0307.htm
http://www.asitis.com/
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/index.htm
http://www.krishna.com/taxonomy/term/49
http://www.atmajyoti.org/gi_bhagavad_gita_intro.asp

Written by Christel Hansen (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

a. Asceticism and Renunciation

Tapas (Ascetic Heat)

Tapas, derived from the Sanskrit root tap– meaning “to consume or destroy by heat” (Kaelber 192) is an important concept in Hindu asceticism. Tapas or “inner heat” is obtained through ascetic practice. There are other meanings however. It can also be used to refer to penance (Kaelber 207), the destructive nature of heat (Kaelber 198), as well as sexual heat (Kaelber 343). It is believed to be a fundamental aspect to the religious experiences associated with fire and heat (e.g. ascetic practices and austerities) (Knipe 101).

Some of the ascetic concept of tapas is related to the creation of the cosmos. It takes part in an ongoing idea of the cosmos being associated with a spiritual unit or “mystical universe” (Knipe 36). For instance, the stars are believed to be created by Prajapati exerting himself in tapas for a thousand years. It is said that the stars are created from the pores of his heated body (Knipe 115). In another example, it is the creative power of this ascetic heat (tapas) which is the beginning in all myths regarding the creation of the universe (O’Flaherty 41).

As previously mentioned, tapas can be used to refer to the heat of asceticism. This type of heat is sometimes referred to as voluntary or “unnatural” heat. In this respect, tapas not only refers to the heat created through asceticism but to the practice of asceticism itself (Kaelber 343). Tapas, when being used for spiritual rebirth is always a voluntary, self-imposed asceticism rather than natural (Kaelber 359). These types of voluntary practices include such things as seclusion or isolation, silence, fasting, and brahmacarya or chastity, to name a few (Kaelber 359). It is important to note however that tapas can also be used to refer to natural heat, such as that given off by the sun or fire (Kaelber 343). According to the Brahmanas, tapas are understood as a sort of personal austerity or asceticism (Kaelber 201). Individuals, who undergo this asceticism, purify themselves through tapas; the impure condition of that individual is overcome which moves him from the state of impurity to the purity (Kaelber 205). This then allows for individuals to rise to a celestial condition (Kaelber 207). Tapas then, refers to the practices performed; it is the practice of asceticism. Tapas, however, also refers to the result of that asceticism (e.g. the heat generated through ascetic practice). Through asceticism (or tapas) the ascetic becomes heated (Kaelber 360).

The concept of destructive tapas is observed both in the Rg Veda and the Atharva Veda. The pain which is associated with this kind of tapas is both undesirable and unpleasant and can be either physical or mental (Kaelber 198). Destructive tapas is correlated in ritual literature with “the external purification of ritual objects” (Kaelber 196). This is believed because the destructive heat of the fire is said to purify directly. For example, in the Dharma Sutras, when they refer to the purification of objects at sacrifices, these objects are said to be cleansed of their impurity by being exposed to the flame of Agni (Kaelber 197). In this sense, it is tapas that comes to be viewed as the power of purification (Kaelber 197)

Tapas is also used to refer to sexual heat (e.g. heat of sexual yearning, the heat of sexual excitation, and the heat generated during intercourse) (Kaelber 343). The association of tapas and sexual heat is more directly seen in the relationship between tapas and the notions of love, desire, or lust. These three ideas are often translated into the Sanskrit word kama meaning “pleasure” (Kaelber 347).

We find tapas to be associated with many of the gods in Hinduism. Siva, an extremely important figure in Hindu mythology, is often referred to as the great lord of tapas (Knipe 101). In many Hindu myths, we find the mention of tapas. For example, in the myths regarding Parvati trying to win Siva as her husband, she sets out to perform tapas (austerities). By setting out to perform tapas, it is believed that she leaves her world of the householder and enters into Siva’s world, which is that of the renouncer (Kinsley 43). This concept is also associated with the Hindu god Agni whose consuming heat is one side of his tapas-producing character (Kaelber 194). In close association to this we find that Agni-Prajapati is born of tapas or “cosmic heat” (Knipe 115). We find that tapas and Brahman (ultimate reality) are also associated, “by tapas seek to know Brahman (for) Brahman is tapas” (Knipe 119). This statement implies a direct association between the Hindu concept of Brahman and the concept of tapas. In Hindu mythology, it is believed that one of the most effective ways to obtain what it is a person wants is to perform ascetic austerities (tapas). With enough persistence, so much heat (tapas) will be generated that the gods will have no choice but to grant the ascetic a wish to save themselves from being burned by the tapas (heat) of the ascetic (Kinsley 42).

We see that tapas is an important ascetic practice and concept within Hinduism. It can also be used to refer to many different contexts such as ritual-ascetic heat/sweat, sexual heat/semen, etc (O’Flaherty). In some myths for example, it is the spilling of seed which translates into these contexts (e.g. Brahma becoming overwhelmed with lust while looking upon Sati, his seed spills to the ground and forms clouds which release water upon the land [O’Flaherty 42]). Given the many different meanings behind tapas, it is in this sense that it can be viewed as both process and product.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING

Kaelber, Walter (1976) “Tapas”, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda. History of Religions,

15(4), 343-386.

Kaelber, Walter (1979) Tapas and Purification in Early Hinduism. Numen, 26, 192-214.

Kaelber, Walter (1989) Tapta-Marga: Asceticism and Initiation in Vedic India. Delhi: Sri

Satguru Publications.

Kinsley, David (?) Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious

Tradition. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Knipe, David (1975) In The Image of Fire. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

O’Flaherty, Wendy (1973) Siva: The Erotic Ascetic. London: Oxford University Press.

Related Topics for Further Investigation

Agni

Asceticism

Austerities

Brahma

Brahmacarya

Brahman

Dharma Sutras

Kama

Parvati

Prajapati

Siva

Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapas_%28Sanskrit%29

http://www.katinkahesselink.net/other/tapas.html

http://www.rainbowbody.net/HeartMind/Tapas.htm

http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/vedaheat.html

http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/disc/disc_65.html#3

Article written by: Sarah Hammett (March 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

Gender Issues

Women and Fertility



The Maiden
Ideals about women have not changed drastically throughout the centuries. For example, information about women’s rituals wasn’t much valued as a high priority for scribes to write down, although interest in this subject is growing little is still known. One of the most widely known texts that have sections dedicated to women, was written of, and looked to as an enforcing factor on norm stability are The Laws Of Manu. What was suitable for women and what was not is still looked up to today for what is suitable and is not. A good example would be to quote Manu (Manu 76-77) on the strict specifications oh how to choose a suitable bride;

Let him not marry a maiden (with) reddish (hair), nor one who has a redundant member, nor one who is sickly, nor one either with too little hair (on body) or too much, nor one who is garrulous or has red (eyes), nor one named after a constellation, a tree, or a river, nor one named of a low caste, or a mountain, nor one named after a bird, a snake, or a slave, nor one whose name inspires terror. Let him wed a female free of bodily defects, who has an agreeable name, the (graceful) gait of an elephant, a moderate (quantity of) hair on the body and on the head, small teeth, and soft limbs. But a prudent man should not marry (a maiden) who has no brother, nor one whose father is not known, through fear lest (in the former case she be made) an appointed daughter (and in the latter) lest (he commit) to sin.


In the first part of this passage Manu is very specific about how high the importance of beauty is among choosing a bride. A “homely” woman would have a hard time finding a husband without an arranged marriage. It is said that the bride must be beautiful in order to invoke her husband’s desire for her. If she were not desirable to him, he would have a hard time finding the will to produce a child with her (Fruzzetti 46). With the latter part, it is assumed that a young Hindu man would not want to marry a woman with no brother because if he did then responsibility would fall upon him to take care of her mother (if she is still around). To marry a women to whom the father is unknown, the young man would not know who or of what caste her father was, or even if she was a legitimate child, either of these could lead to very bad things, even as severe as being disowned/disgracing his family.

Coming Of Age
Menstrual blood is considered to be especially polluting, although there is ambiguity here since some classical texts treat menstrual blood as the female seed which joins with the male semen to produce a child. Some tantric practices take the approach of using female discharges, such as menstrual blood, as a ritual drink- the idea being to use the most powerful female pollution to overcome all other pollutions (Coward 3) .

It is felt that the coming of a girl’s menstruation is a sure sign of her readiness for marriage.
(Fruzzetti 69-67) Even though this is a welcoming sign of the daughter’s fertility it also becomes a fear. The fear blooms from the idea that now the young girl is fertile [viewed as being fully grown] she will now be a temptation to the other men of the house. Marriage is the only way of removing the potential occurrence of impure acts. (Fruzzetti 96-97)

As hinted above, a girl’s chastity is viewed as very important; this stress on keeping your daughter chaste also goes into marrying her off to a suitable son of an equal, or possibly higher, caste as soon as possible to limit the time in between that she could tempt other males (Coward 18).

A Male Heir

Not in all cases is menstruation viewed as impure or polluting. It is sometimes viewed as the female creative power, paralleling that of the male semen. In Post-Vedic mythology, menstrual blood sometimes appears as a symbol of the passion of women. In primitive physiology, menstrual blood, rather than the ovum was viewed as the female component which combined with the male seed to produce conception (Coward 29). The most common reference is viewed as the cultivation of a field. The women being the field, men being the farmers which plough, seed, and farm [like Sita- who is born of the earth and goes back into the earth. Women regard themselves as mother earth] (Coward 36).

Conceptualization of a child is a very important goal among the Hindus’ householder stage, marriage. Even though the birth of the first child is a splendid occasion, it tends to be even more splendid if it is a baby boy. There is a type of equation that Manu (83-87) had figured out. In which he had come to the conclusion that there were certain days a women was in season, 16 days and nights – including four days which are censured by the virtuous, among these days he believed that the numerology of the days also contribute to determining the sex of the child. If the child was conceived in an even day it would end up being a boy; if the child was conceived on an odd day it would come out being a girl. Manu also believed that a son is produced by a larger amount of male seed- leading to the unwritten conclusion that a male with a low sperm count will only be able to produce females, if any children at all.

The importance of birthing a son is captured wholly in the idea that the male blood line is continued through the sons using the wife’s body as a vessel. Blood transmission is made possible by the wife’s body being a receptacle and a transmitter. Women then are thought of as being the only means in which a man can continue his line and transmit his ancestral blood. This immortality of the line is made possible by the birth of male children through the wife (Fruzzetti 24).















Bibliography and Other Recommended Readings




Fruzzetti, Lina (1989) The gift of a virgin: women, marriage, and ritual in a Bengali Society. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.

Coward, Harold G (1989) Hindu ethics: purity, abortion, and euthanasia. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Chitgopekar, Nilima (2002) Invoking goddesses: gender politics in Indian religion. New Delhi: Shakti Books.






Buhler, G.[translated by Buhler from Manu’s original work] (1964) Laws of Manu. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.






Everett, Jana Matson (1979) Women and social change in India. New York: St. Martin’s Press.


Desai, Neera (1987) Women and society in India. Delhi: Ajanta Publications.


Dhruvarajan, Vanaja (1989) Hindu women and the power of ideology. Granby, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey.






Related Topics for further investigation




Anandamayi Ma

Sita

Sita as Mother Earth

Ramayana

Caste system

Manu

Vedic Numerology




Related websites

http://hinduism.about.com/library/weekly/extra/bl-lawsofmanu10.htm






Written by Phelicia Hamilton (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.



	

	
	




	
	

				

			Major Characters of the Mahabharata
		

			
Draupadi

		

			 		

	


		

		


 


In Hindu mythology, few women stand out as much as the character of Draupadi. Draupadi is the wife of the five Pandava princes in the Hindu epic the Mahabharata; she is a heroine who is unpredictable, unwavering and who could also possess the austerity of a traditional Hindu wife. Many see Draupadi as an early feminist because of her fearlessness in admonishing those who harmed her or her family. Draupadi existed in a time when a woman’s role was to serve her husband. As Dr. Vanamala Bhawalkar states “[in] Draupadi’s Era, there was no question of women’s equality with men. The wife was the counterpart of her husband and both together became a complete person. As Milton had said “He for God and she for the God in him” was true in those days.”(150) The unique relationship between Draupadi and her husbands is what makes her story so exceptional. Draupadi, the wife of the mighty Pandava brothers was anything but a conventional wife; she was smart, bold and would often lead her husbands into action.


There are few women that compete with the beauty of Draupadi; all those that met her adored her. Her beauty was so great that she delighted all of the human senses. Alf Hiltbeitel states this of her beauty: “[T]he very sight of her was magnetic due to her irresistible beauty and fragrance”(Hiltebeitel 267). Draupadi’s beauty would gain her much attention, but it is her ability to balance her beauty with the desirable traits of a wife that gain her such devotion. However, as Bhawalkar notes, it was not only her beauty that won her praise: “Yudhisthira said that she was such that any man would desire and that she never committed any sin. Bhima equaled her to the ancient famous wives. Her mother-in-law Kunti praised her for the virtues and her laudable behavior with all her husbands”(Bhawalkar 141). Draupadi was as skilled in the arts of being a woman, and everything that was associated with womanhood, as she was gifted in beauty. Her opinions were well respected and supported by her family due to her vast knowledge of many subjects. Unlike many women in her era, Draupadi’s father, Drupada, allowed Draupadi to be educated. Bhawalkar comments on Draupadi’s education: “Drupada had engaged learned Brahmanas for the education of his sons. Draupadi also joined them and became an expert in Political Science”(Bhawalkar 3). It is possible that the unique qualities that Draupadi possessed, such as strength and audacity, are a result of being educated. Having such a complete education would have given Draupadi a sense of confidence unfamiliar to most women. Also Draupadi was quick to learn and thirsted for knowledge; she had a keen memory and had a vast knowledge on many subjects. Bhawalkar comments on the success of Draupadi as a student: “She became known as Pandita (learned and wise) and grew up a charming maiden admired by all”(Bhawalkar 4). Bhawalkar affirms that these attributes are a part of why Draupadi was so well liked and respected. Her intellect and knowledge did not however hinder her ability to be a dutiful wife. “Draupadi was a devoted wife, chaste, religious minded and adhering to duty. Her integrity and fidelity were admirable. She was always careful to please her husbands, served not only them but even their wives”(Bhawalkar 142). Draupadi was concerned with the common good of all her family and believed that a family functioned best as a whole unit. Draupadi was so devoted to her husbands that she followed them into exile and a life without lavishes. Sandy Sutherland notes that in exile she is depicted as: “having suffered great insult, but faithfully following her husbands into exile and enduring the hardships of the forest. It is from these scenes, and not from her life in the palace, that we learn of the real character of Draupadi”(Sutherland 68). She was quick to see the benefit of her polygamous lifestyle and was able to take all obstacles in stride. Draupadi possessed the desirable traits of many women, and was able to use these traits to influence and control. Draupadi had a great understanding of the balance between being bold and forthright, and being submissive and dutiful.


Of all the parts in the Mahabharata that include Draupadi, the story of Draupadi’s Cheer-Haran remains the most vivid. This is an important event because it is one of the main reasons for the Mahabharata war, and it is also a breaking point for Draupadi. The climax of this event is when Draupadi is dragged into court after Yudhisthira had lost her in a bet to the Kauravas, along with all of his wealth and kingdom. The character Dushsasana, one of the Kaurava brothers, attempts to strip off Draupadi’s sari. However, Draupadi prays to Krsna and he works a miracle to prevent her sari from running out of layers. Draupadi is humiliated by this and is angered by the Pandavas inability or reluctance to help her. It is her reaction to this abhorrence that we see Draupadi’s bravery, as she reprimands those around her in the court. Bimal Krishna Matilal comments on her courage: “Draupadi had presence of mind and fearlessness even during calamities. She could rebuke and threaten the Kauravas, Jayadratha and Kicaka for molesting her and was bold enough to argue with the members of the assemblies of the Kuras and also Virata”(Matilal 143). It is Draupadi’s reaction to situations like these that set her apart from her husbands; she is often the first to react to any injustices and is a visibly powerful figure often controlling the Pandavas. Sutherland comments on the power that Draupadi possesses in this incident: “The episode is ironic, though. During the scene we are made aware that the beautiful Draupadi is possessed also of quick wit and a clever tongue. Her ability at debate is soon demonstrated, and at the conclusion of the episode, we realize that her wit has saved her husbands from impending slavery”(Sutherland 67). The Pandavas recognize what Draupadi is capable of and listen to her. Because she possesses such vast knowledge on politics, the Pandavas are inclined to listen to her and frequently rely upon her for decision-making. This is not to say that Draupadi was invincible, she was greatly affected by conflict and would become emotional. Bhawalkar comments the on emotional side of Draupadi: “Draupadi, unlike the mythological goddess or the ideal heroines of our ancient literature, was quite human with human emotions and feelings like anger, love, hate, happiness and grief. Her life was full of ups and downs and she maintained her dignity in both the situations”(Bhawalkar 141). It is Draupadi’s ability to overcome adversity in a venerable manner that sets her apart from other women. In the Mahabharata she proves that no situation is insurmountable, and she never abandons her husbands, regardless of the positions they lead her into.


After the incident at the court of the Kurus, Draupadi emerges as a much more powerful character and this is seen in the interactions with her husbands. Bhawalkar remarks on Draupadi’s relationship with her husbands: “Draupadi was not a dumb follower of her husbands. She had her own individuality. Though soft speaking she used harsh words to her husbands and others when necessary”(Bhawalkar 143). This boldness is what sets her apart from other women in the epics. The Pandavas are accepting of this treatment possibly because they feel guilt for their abandonment of Draupadi at the court, or possibly because they truly trust in her decisions. The Pandavas often looked to Draupadi for guidance and approval. Draupadi was in many ways equal to her husbands and they desired her respect. Despite the fact that Draupadi eventually forgives her husbands, she is left with a desire for vengeance, and is quick to seek revenge on those who offend her or her family. Draupadi begins to be recognized for this aggressive attitude and her enemies are wary of her power. Enemies knew that Draupadi had a great influence on the Pandavas and she was feared because of her vast knowledge on all things moral. “She could argue forcibly to win her point with apt quotations and illustrations from her fund of knowledge on various subjects like righteousness, duties and codes of conduct for the four Varnas (castes), moral, legal and ethical codes and was called Dharmajna, Dharmadarsini”(Bhawalkar 141). Although Draupadi was desperate for revenge on those who harmed her, her distinction between right and wrong was rarely clouded and she was often in pursuit of justice. 


Draupadi’s distinction among other women from the epics is paramount and well deserved; she was far ahead of her time, often found commanding her husbands to do her bidding. It is her ability to use her position with responsibility and insight that show her true power as a woman. Dr. Bhawalkar summarizes Draupadi’s unique qualities:


Yet the superb qualities of Draupadi like steadfast devotion to duty, spirit of self sacrifice, fortitude; courage, capacity for hard work, presence of mind, perseverance, endurance, thirst for knowledge, wisdom to discriminate between right and wrong and strength to fight against injustice, truth, modesty, forgiveness, softness and harshness as the occasion demanded – these and such other qualities seen in Draupadi’s life are universal and beyond the limit of time and space. (Bhawalkar 151)


Draupadi’s fearlessness and uncompromising nature makes her of great importance in the history of mythological women and of women today.


 


 


Bibliography


 


Bhawalkar, V. (2002) Eminent Women in the Mahabharata. Delhi: Sharada Publishing 


 


 House.


 


Hiltebeitel, Alf. (1988) The Cult of Draupadi Volume 1. Chicago: University of Chicago 


 


 Press.


 


Matilal, Bimal Krishna. (1989) Moral Dilemmas In The Mahabharata. India: Shri 


 


 Jainendra Press.


 


Sutherland, Sally J (1989) “Sita and Draupadi: Aggressive Behavior and Female Role-


 


 Models in the Sanskrit Epics.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 109, 


 


 no. 1 (Jan. – Mar.): 63-79.


 


 


 


Related Topics


 


Mahabharata


Pandavas


Epics


Krishna


Bhakti


Karna


Arjuna


Bhima


Yudisthira


Nakula


Sahadeva


Kunti


Kauravas


Indian Feminism


 


 


Related Websites


 


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draupadi


 


http://www.dollsofindia.com/draupadi.htm


 


http://moralstories.wordpress.com/2006/05/15/draupadi-an-ikon-of-a-true-indian-woman/


 


http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm


 


http://www.mahabharataonline.com/


 


http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm


 


http://moralstories.wordpress.com/2006/05/15/draupadi-an-ikon-of-a-true-indian-woman/


 


 


Written by Chloe Grant (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

	

	
	




	
	

				

			b. Vedic Deities
		

			
Varuna

		

			 		

	


		

		


Varuna is one of the oldest gods in Hindu history and is noted as a “universal monarch” (Choudhuri 33). In the past, Varuna was said to be king of the gods holding utmost power in Vedic India. Scholars say that Varuna is a “majestic Jehovah, preserver of eternal order and redresser of wrongs” (Hakin 105). Varuna himself is related to the skies and water controlling the cosmic order. However, though there are only roughly twelve hymns dedicated to him in the Rg Veda, Varuna is still in charge of many things, and has many obligations as a Vedic god. Varuna’s main obligations involve both creating and preserving the heaven and earth, and protecting the waters, including all oceans and rivers, celestial and terrestrial. He is to stay strong to the rta (keeping cosmic order); his duties include commanding the darkness of the night, and keeping a separation between night and day. The sky blankets Varuna. “He knows not sleep, and nothing escapes his vigilance, for the stars, his eyes, are without number” (Hakin 105). He created the rivers, and maintains the volume of water so they do not overflow, continuing to watch over the water’s entirety. The duties of this majestic deity make the stars come out at night and magically Varuna’s powers cause the stars to disappear during the day (Choudhuri 56). Along with these duties, he holds the task of keeping earth in its full form, and being an omniscient Vedic god, Varuna “knows the path of the birds flying through the air. He, abiding into the ocean, knows also the course of the ships” (Choudhuri 34).


Though Varuna is rarely depicted, if one is to look hard enough, images are profuse. Varuna is depicted as a fierce white god, with perfect posture, riding upon a marine monster known as a Makara. The Makara is still not fully understood. Some believe it to have originally been a dolphin-like creature, depicted as an aquatic being, seeming to be half-crocodile. Others believe it to have the legs of an antelope and the tail of a fish. According to the Vedas, Varuna is said to have four faces, one closely resembling the features of Agni, the god of Fire. He has many arms of grace, and a noose. Varuna’s noose is made from a snake, and is grasped in his right hand, accompanied by a shining gold foot. He wears a short, floating, sleeveless cloak of gold coloring, and complete golden armour. Varuna lives in a house of one thousand doors, thus being constantly attainable to man and humankind (Wilkins 38). Choudhuri also believes that Varuna’s palace is one of a thousand gates; inside resides Varuna upon his golden throne (34). Varuna’s palace has multiple doors to symbolize and represent his “uninterrupted movement and knowledge” (Choudhuri 34).


 Vedic history explores the idea that Varuna is not solely affiliated with just water itself, but “to the water elements of ether and earth” (Nakamura 44). Many profound scholars like Georges Dumezil believe Varuna to be connected to many different ideas and concepts. Dumezil believes there to be a link between Mitra (god of Oath) and Varuna. In his essay of Mirta-Varuna, Dumezil interprets “Mitra as friend” and links Varuna’s name to “the root Var- (to bind)” (67). Wilkins states that Mitra and Varuna come together as one in many hymns and are written about quite often, though Varuna is occasionally solo in other hymns (37). Each time Mitra is mentioned in a Vedic hymns, Varuna is also elevated (Dumezil 66). Both Mitra and Varuna are considered to be great gods, and in control of the seas and rivers, and are associated closely with each other in the Atharvaveda (Choudhuri 154). Thus being said, Varuna is closely associated with Mitra, accompanying Mitra as a divine king. Choudhuri states Varuna to be “the ruler of gods, along with all men” expressing both “physical and moral demands” (38). 


Myths support that Varuna became a powerful Vedic god through Indra (god of War and Weather). The myth states that a demon stole the entirety of the universe’s water, creating a large conflict with the heavens and the earth (Wilkins 42), and it was not Varuna alone who fought off the demon, but fought alongside Indra. It was stated that it is “because of this that Indra was able to supplant the lordship of Varuna and become lord of the gods himself” (Nakamura 44) taking the ultimate power from Varuna. Yet Varuna still remains a part of the Hindu culture. Though Varuna still holds power, he is not nearly as an important god that he once was. Even such as it is said, Varuna is not widely worshipped by many but still plays an important role in the lives of some. In particular, Varuna is strongly worshipped by people about to go out on long sea voyages, and fishermen as they set out to sea. He is worshipped by farmers during the long, hot, dry seasons of drought. Varuna is also worshipped by those who fear him, mostly in an attempt to free themselves of their sins and wrong doings (Hackin 105). Varuna liberates us of all sin; “keep far from us the evil (Nirrti) with unfriendly looks, and liberate us from whatever sins we may have committed” (Choudhuri 34).


Said to be the Vedic god of punishment, Varuna holds the order of the skies and waters. Of all Hindu deities, Varuna is the judgemental god, providing justice and punishment to everyone. In the book Indra and Varuna in Indian Mythology, Choudhuri states that “Varuna removes the bad elements of yajna and protects its virtuous elements. Varuna is vigilant over satya (truth) and Anrta (falsehood)” (82-3). Thus being true, he does not allow people to disobey Hindu law, and is extremely vigilant of people’s sins. When a sin is committed Varuna sees all and hears all, and those people are punished rigorously. Many human beings fear Varuna as he is in charge of the moral actions and the thoughts of all people. “Varuna is the sovereign under his attacking aspect, dark, inspired, violent, terrible, warlike” (Dumezil 72). Varuna is a protector of the good, and punishes the evil, as he cannot be fooled by anybody. Varuna is said to be able to extend the lives of the good and shorten the lives of the sinners. Here the use of Varuna’s noose is interpreted, as it is “characterized with the power of seizing and trying foes, the demons, and the sinners” (Choudhuri 159). When Varuna confronts a sinner, bargains are made, contracts are enforced; he lassoes them with his noose, as they plead for forgiveness and mercy. Although Varuna is only a judgemental deity, if he chooses, Varuna is able to share the obligations of Yama (god of Death). Of all Vedic gods, Varuna has the highest of moral character, and is called upon for in the notion of purity (Wilkins 40).


Like many other Vedic gods, Varuna is accompanied by a wife, Varuni. Though little is written by scholars about Varuni, westerners believe her to be the goddess of wine. Varuni co-existing through Varuna, sits among a throne scattered with diamonds, and among them sit other gods and goddesses such as Samudra (the seas), Ganga (the Ganges) along with other gods and goddesses of springs, rivers, and lakes in Varuna’s courts (Wilkins 44). To this day, even though Varuna is not as powerful as he once was, he still plays an important role in Hindu lives. Being an omniscient god, Varuna has unlimited control over the Hindu people, and every action is judged by Varuna himself. Perhaps the most unruly reasoning behind Varuna’s popularity is judgement. Varuna appears to play a powerful role in the lives of sinners, and under strict duties, rids Hindu society of such sins and wrong doings. Though Varuna is not widely worshipped, he nevertheless is a powerful and important deity in Hindu culture and tradition. It is Varuna who expresses his power through his actions and though his obligations as a Vedic deity. 
















REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READINGS


Choudhuri, Usha (1981) Indra and Varuna in Indian Mythology. New Delhi: Nag Publishers 


Dumezil, Georges (1988) Mitra-Varuna: An Essay of Two Indo-European Representations of Sovereignty. New York: Zone Books. 


Gatwood, Lynn E. (1895) Devi and the Spouse Goddess. New York: The Riverdale Company Inc.


Hackin J. et al. (1834) Asiatic Mythology: A Detailed Description and Explanation of the Mythologies of All the Great Nations of Asia. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company


Kinsley, David (1986) Hindu Goddesses. Berkeley: University of California Press.


Nakamura, Hajime (1992), A Comparative History of Ideas. Delhi: Mortilal Banarsidass. 


Wilkins, W.J (1882) Hindu Mythology. New Delhi: Rupa & Co.






Related Topics for Further Investigation




Angi


Anrta


Atharvaveda


Deity


Ganga


Indra


Makara


Mitra


Nirrti


Rg Veda


Rta


Satya


Samudra


The Ganges 


Varuni


Yajna


Yama










Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic


http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/VAN_VIR/VARUNA.html


http://books.google.ca/books?id=zwRay6g-GzAC&pg=PA128&lpg=PA128&dq=god+varuna&source=web&ots=ADEQTCJ5YS&sig=bQg_VkBzkpytaGaZUY_r6qhiSsg&hl=en


http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ANCINDIA/VEDICAGE.HTM


“Varuna.” Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online.

[http://www.pantheon.org/articles/v/varuna.html]


 http://mythfolklore.net/india/encyclopedia/varuni.htm


http://www.karma2grace.org/encyclopedia/Varuna.htm


http://www.siamese-dream.com/page/siam1/CTGY/article-hindu-gods-varuna




http://www.webonautics.com/mythology/varuna.html




http://www.indiayogi.com/content/indgods/varuna.asp






Article written by Erica Goy (April 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

	

	
	




	
	

			
	

				

			Ganga
		

			
Ganga: Goddess and Sacred River

		

			 		

	


		

		
The goddess of the river Ganges is known as Ganga, and she and the river are worshipped as one. The river plays an integral role in the lives of the millions of Hindus in India. Ganga’s myths, forms of worship, usage in daily rituals, and faith in her power all have an extremely important place in Hinduism today.


Many myths describe Ganga as having heavenly origins, and illustrate her descent (avatarana) to earth in various ways, all involving association with the important male gods Brahma, Visnu, and Siva. In one account, Ganga descends to earth using Siva to break her fall. As she falls through his hair, she becomes divided into many streams, each flowing to a different part of the earth. She does this in order to wash over the ashes of the sixty thousand sons of King Sagara, in order to purify and free their souls. His sons had deeply offended the great sage Kapila, who, in anger, burned them to ash. Eventually, Bhagiratha, a descendent of Sagara, takes upon himself to free the souls of his ancestors by doing many austerities. After centuries of doing this, Ganga appears and grants his wish and goes to earth. Another variety of the myth describes that the god Brahma, who, holding Ganga in his water pot, pours her onto Visnu’s foot when it stretches into the heavens (Kinsley 188-189). The three parts of the Ganges have their own names. The section remaining in heaven is known as Mandakini. The earthly portion is known as Ganga, and the part that goes to the final region is called Bhagirathi (Singh 48). All accounts of the myth stress the importance of Ganga’s heavenly, divine nature, and of being made sacred by coming into contact with Visnu and Siva. Due to Ganga’s descent from heaven to earth, she becomes a continuous link between the earthly and heavenly realms (Kinsley 192). It is because of this link that the Ganges is so revered as a way to be in closer contact with the divine. 


Ganga is related in the myths to various deities, but it is the relationship between Ganga and Siva that is the most emphasized. Both are dependent on each other. It is only Ganga who can cool the lingam of Siva; otherwise he would always be as a burning linga of fire, and it only with Siva’s help that Ganga does not flood the earth. Both are vehicles for each other. This relationship is demonstrated through the daily ritual of pouring water over the Siva linga (Eck 148). 


Bas-relief depicting the goddess Ganga atop her crocodile (makara) mount at Kelaniya Temple, Sri Lanka
Bas-relief depicting the goddess Ganga atop her crocodile (makara) mount at Kelaniya Temple, Sri Lanka


When depicted in different art forms, Ganga is shown as a fair complexioned woman, wearing a white crown and sitting on a crocodile. Many deities are depicted holding special objects, and Ganga is no exception. When shown with two hands, she holds a water lily and a lute. If having four hands, she carries a water lily, a water pot, a rosary, and one hand is held in a protective position (Singh 47). Poet seers of the Vedas started the tradition of praising Ganga for her blessings and power centuries ago. Many praises (mahatmyas) of Ganga can be read in various Sanskrit epics and Puranas, and there are also numerous hymns devoted to the goddess, one of which is known as Jagannatha’s “Ganga Lahari.” These praises and hymns emphasize her greatness, glory, and life giving waters. Different levels of protection and help is also said to be achieved through certain actions involving Ganga. For example, chanting Ganga’s name alone is believed to reduce poverty or get rid of bad dreams. Bathing in Ganga’s waters or being cremated on her banks can even result in liberation (moksa) (Eck 138-144). 


Since the river is such a major physical feature and is so important in Hindu mythology, it is only natural that it has major significance in people’s daily lives and rituals. One such role is that played in death rituals. Many Hindus want their ashes or bones put into the Ganges, because they believe that in doing so, they are guaranteed a safe journey to the ancestral realm. It is believed that one can receive liberation immediately through contact with the Ganges. This can occur either by dying in the Ganges, or simply having its water put on the lips right before death. The link that Ganga provides to the heavens from earth is once again observed in the belief that when one’s ashes touch the waters, they are rejuvenated and strengthened enough to make the journey to heaven (Kinsley 193 -194). If one is particularly devout, he or she will try to spend their last days on the banks of the river. They do this according to the belief that one who dies there will be delivered from all sins. These actions strongly support the belief that the Ganges has the power to provide deep spiritual cleansing (Singh 83). Varanasi, which is India’s holiest city, sees the journey of millions of Hindus each year, who come to cremate their dead and wash in the waters (Hammer 80). At the cremation ceremony, the funeral pyre is usually lit by the eldest son. As it burns, a priest will chant Vedic verses. The following day, the ashes are gathered up and taken to Haridwar, a holy city and the place of the headwaters of the Ganga. The ashes are then placed into the holy water (Singh 84). Haridwar is also known as Gangadvara, or “Door of the Ganges”, and is a place of pilgrimage (Eck 137). People want to be cremated on the banks of the Ganges so that they are in her care. 


This characteristic of being caring points to another major faith in Ganga, which is her portrayal of being motherly and loving. She is commonly known as Mother Ganges. As Mother, she has the powers of compassion and comfort, and is a provider of blessings to her children (Kinsley 193). Her motherly care can lead to a place that is free from sorrow, fear, old age and death. The goddess is also said to be aware of everyone’s deepest fears and desires. Ganga takes these feelings upon herself, leaving the individual purified and strengthened. Everyday, millions bathe in and drink from the river, and pray on its banks. Using the water for washing, bathing, and cooking is a way to make sure one can receive Ganga’s blessings and grace (King 155-161). Ganga’s waters are understood to be the life giving, immortal liquid (amrta) of mother’s milk (Eck137). The waters are life giving, both physically and spiritually. Physically, the river gives life to the land, making it fertile. The Ganges can create and support life, and is often appealed to in order to ensure healthy crops. Spiritually, the water can purify and cleanse one of pollution. Flowing water has cleansing capabilities, and the power to get rid of one’s daily impurities. This can be done by simply pouring water over one’s head, or taking a ritual bath. These methods are often approved as a way to remove pollution (Kinsley 189-194). In these ways, Ganga fulfills the role of universal mother, protector, and purifier. 


Pilgrim journeys are a major way of life for many Hindus. Different festivals, the customs and castes of an individual’s community, and one’s life crisis’s and rituals all dictate how and when a pilgrimage may take place. Millions of pilgrims travel to the Ganges each year. For many, the natural beauty of the river and the Himalayas is very calming, and can be a way to express emotion towards the gods. Pilgrims come to the Ganges seeking healing, and to be rid of any pain or suffering. Hindus from all over the world travel to Haridwar to pour the ashes of loved ones into the river and to make offerings (Kinsley 160-163). Many come to not only appeal to Ganga, but also to touch, see, and bathe in the river itself. The physical river is worshipped as one may worship the image of a deity. Garlands of flowers are often placed around the neck of the image; in this case, garlands are strung out across the river (Kinsley 196). Flower offerings are common, as each day, thousands of pilgrims will drop bags filled with flowers into the river, as offerings to Ganga (Hammer 79). The mahatmyas (praises) say that every part of the Ganga is a tirtha, which is a spiritual ford and a place of pilgrimage (Eck 142). 


A certain special event in the endless worship of Ganga is the day known as Ganga Dasahara. It is recognized as the birthday of the Ganga. The banks of the river are filled with bathers, and it is said that by going into the water at this time, ten lifetimes of sins are destroyed. This day celebrates Ganga’s descent (avatarana) from heaven to earth, and is done in expectation of the eventual monsoon rains (Eck 144). Another extremely important Hindu festival is Kumbha Mela. This festival is often considered the most extravagant and impressive, for at any given time there can be more than twenty million people present. It celebrates the glory of Ganga, and all her richness and power. It reenacts a cosmic event when, at a certain astrological union, the Ganga waters became nectar. The main purpose is to have a ritual bath in the river, and millions of pilgrims make the journey to participate in this festival and wash away their sins. There are many processions with elephants, dancing, music, and the general feeling of happiness and joy. These feelings are often increased by the closeness and presence of the Ganges (King 171-172). Gifts to the Ganges are very common, and pilgrims will give many different kinds. Milk, fruit, saris, jewelry, and coins, and many others are all presented as gifts to Ganga. Various offerings are also done, especially in cases of appealing for future prosperity and health. Newly married couples will bathe in the river after marriage and after the birth of their child. Women will wash in the river for fertility and to give birth to a son, and some will contribute a basket filled with clothing or cosmetics (suhagpitari) to Ganga. The gift is believed to ensure the long life and prosperity of their husbands and family (King 177).


The Ganges River can be viewed as an embodiment of life, purity, and power. From its use in daily tasks to more spiritual applications, the Ganges maintains its place as a dominant entity in Hinduism. In recent years, pilgrimage to the Ganga has become more popular. The Ganga is a very powerful force, and she is the link between nature, humans, and divinity (King 187). Respect and adoration for physical nature is reflected in the spiritual importance given to the sacred river and the general landscape. The Ganga is proclaimed to be the most supreme river of all, and all agree that her power is unending and divine (Eck 137-138).


Bibliography


Eck, Diana L. (1996) “Ganga: The Goddess Ganges in Hindu Sacred Geography.” In J.S. Hawley and D.M. Wulff (eds.) Devi: Goddesses of India. Berkeley: University of California Press.


Hammer, Joshua (2007) The Ganges: Sacred and Profaned. Smithsonian November 2007


King, Anna S. (2005) “Waters of Devotion”. In A.S. King and J. Brockington (eds.) The Intimate Other: Love Divine in Indic Religions. New Delhi: Orient Longman


Kinsley, David (1998) Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publications.


Singh, Dharam Vir (2003) Hinduism: An Introduction. New Delhi: Rupa & Co.


List of Related Research Topics


Brahma


Visnu


Siva


Mahatmyas


Ganga Lahari


Puja


Ganga Dasahara


Kumbha Mela


Pilgrimage in India


Moksa


Related Websites


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganga_in_Hinduism


http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/ganga/


http://www.sanatansociety.org/indian_epics_and_stories/the_life_of_ganga.htm


http://www.dollsofindia.com/ganga.htm


http://www.webonautics.com/mythology/ganga2.html


http://www.hinduwisdom.info/articles_hinduism/197.htm


Written by Genevieve Golas (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its conten

	

	
	




	
	

				

			3. Carvaka, b. The Heterodox Philosophies
		

			
Carvaka (Materialist) Philosophy

		

			 		

	


		

		




The Carvaka (sweet-talkers), also known as Lokayata philosophy, is a heterodox Hindu philosophy named after its founder and often classified with its fellow dissenter philosophies of Buddhism and Jainism. However, unlike Jainism and Buddhism, Carvaka has not turned into its own religious sect and remains a philosophical ideal. Being a heterodox school of thought means that Carvaka rejects the idea that the Vedas are revealed texts (sruti) and also rejects the power of the Brahmin priestly class (see King 19). It is a materialistic philosophy that places most of its emphasis on the here and now and life as we perceive it as we live through it. The Carvaka system only accepts perceived knowledge to be true and therefore dismisses the concept of an afterlife. Although the philosophy is believed to be quite old, there are very few texts that deal directly with the system itself. 


 There is no single piece of extant literature that is solely based on the materialistic philosophy of the Carvaka. The few writings that clearly relate to the system are not very old in Hindu terms (a few centuries) but many scholars believe that there is evidence of criticisms of the Carvaka principles in earlier writings by adversary philosophers such as Sankara (Hiriyanna 187). The Carvakas played a significant role in the history of Indian philosophy (King 21). It was very unnerving to the leaders and priests of the orthodox tradition because of the rejection of their sacred texts and the rejection of immaterial forms of existence. The importance of the materialist philosophy is most likely underplayed because of the lack of extant texts of Carvaka or Lokayata itself. The Brhaspati Sutra apparently set out the principles of the system but the text has been lost. The orthodox opposition wrote the only known writings pertaining to the philosophy. The only possible extant writing on the Caravaka philosophy is Destruction of Philosophical Theories (Tattvopaplavasimha) by Jayarasi Bhatta (King 19). Even this is not directly Carvaka; it is explained more as radical skepticism than materialism. Still the fact that Jayarasi was from a school of skeptical Lokayatikas gives writings that are closely related to and are not completely critical of the Carvaka philosophy.


 The lack of texts to support it made the tradition unlikely to survive, unlike its fellow heterodox traditions of Buddhism and Jainism adhering to their own sacred texts. The only possible extant writing on the Carvaka philosophy is Destruction of Philosophical Theories (Tattvopaplavasimha) by Jayarasi Bhatta (King 19). Even this is not directly Carvaka; it is explained more as radical skepticism than materialism. Still the fact that Jayarasi was from a school of skeptical Lokayatikas gives writings that are closely related to and are not completely critical of the Carvaka philosophy. There is also evidence of the Carvaka system in the Rgveda. The poets of the Rgveda never show a desire to reach another world but instead put emphasis on the here and now facts of life, just as the Carvaka system does (Raja 24). The philosophy receives much ridicule in ancient literature. This is presumed to be because of the gaps and deficiencies in the system of thought itself because fellow heterodox systems that reject the Vedas and authority of the priestly class do not receive such negative commentary. Since most of the writings on the Carvaka are by followers of opposing schools of thought, it may be misinterpreted and its weaknesses overly emphasized. 


 One of the reasons that many philosophers reject Carvaka is because of the dogma of perception. The doctrine states that the only valid knowledge (pranama) is that which is directly perceived– sense knowledge. Reasoning is completely rejected as a valid way of acquiring knowledge (King 132). The explanation for this is that there is not sufficient cause for believing in the truth of the inductive relation that forms the basis for the idea. The inductive relation can be different to each individual and is not physically apparent. It takes on the approach of modern science (Raja 30). Universal relationships can be accepted only if they can be warranted by direct observation (anubhava), much like a science experiment. Inference requires perceptual knowledge to establish its validity. Giving probabilities rather than definitive answers was the main reason for resistance to inferential reasoning (King 133). The limitations on thought and reasoning provide a rigid barrier to giving deeper meaning to life and thereby contribute any new ideas or perspectives to Indian philosophy (darshanas).


 In ancient Hindu society the upper three varnas were allowed to participate in Vedic ritual practices and receive an education. The lack of inclusiveness of commoners may have provided a base for their support of Carvaka. Not being allowed to participate in Vedic rituals and having the powerful priestly class causing dissent made the philosophy’s position of rejection of the Vedas and Brahmins very appealing (King 17). It is easy to reject the power of the Vedic text when one is not allowed to participate in rituals or is unable to read them. 


 The specific purposes of human existence are undecided from the Carvaka philosophical viewpoint. In traditional Hindu society righteousness (dharma), pleasure (kama), worldly success (artha), and liberation (moksa) were the basic principles of human existence. The materialists believed that the main goal of life was kama or the pursuit of pleasure (King 18). A follower of the doctrine would try to maximize the pleasures in his or her life. The Carvaka promotes a lifestyle based on the avoidance of sorrow or suffering. Some scholars also believe that success or wealth (artha) was another main goal of the Carvaka life. The philosophy is often criticized because of these materialistic purposes for life. In later writings distinctions seem to have been made between refined materialism, which had a hierarchical scheme of pleasures, and approving of intellecual over sensual pleasure, and a more crude materialism (King 18). The hierarchal system is probably a more valid description of how the original philosophy was practiced, with intellect being important and adherents not having blatant disregard for the moral issues that go along with the attempt to have artha and kama. 


 Lokayata often has a negative reputation because of the lack of dharma as an absolute goal of life. The philosophy cannot just be projected as an unreflective hedonistic perspective. Dealing with moral issues and rejecting the actions that may cause harm to others has evidentiary support (King 19). Since there was a lack of the goal of righteousness derived from dharma, the idea of kama controlled actions of the followers. Kama was not believed to be for just oneself, but a universal goal to avoid suffering for oneself and others. Carvaka also condemned war and the Vedic animal sacrifices much like the Jainas and Buddhists (Chattopadhyaya 31). Both of these practices add to the suffering of other individuals, making them unacceptable to the Lokayata. 


 The doctrine dismisses all gods, devas and supernatural beings (Hiriyanna 193). It is also recognized that there is no god who governs the universe, no life after death, or conscience (dharma). The material world is all that exists and there are no other worlds in which to be reborn. This fixates a follower totally on the world of sense around them and does not inspire elevated thoughts of a deeper reality. There is no god who created the world, but a conglomeration of matter that is able to produce things out of itself (Dasgupta 175). Carvaka rejects the idea of Brahman because nobody has come back to relate to us what happens after death. Brahman is inferred, and cannot be perceived by the senses. Therefore the Carvaka rejects Brahman. Only the four elements of earth, fire, water and air are recognized and these together produce intelligence that is destroyed when the body perishes. Just like intelligence, atman or the soul is not believed to be a separate entity from the body as it is unable to be demonstrated that it does exists. 


 Although there are no remaining practitioners of the Carvaka philosophy it still remains an integral part of Indian philosophical history. There may be resurgence in the interest and study of such materialistic philosophies such as this with the changing views of western culture today.




References and Further Recommended Readings


Chattopadhyaya, D. (1968) Lokayata: A Study in Ancient Indian Materialism. New Delhi: People’s Publishing House.




Dasgupta, Surendranath (1962) A History of Indian Philosophy: vol. V. New York, N.Y.: The Cambridge University Press.




Hiriyanna, M. (1968) Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin LTD. 




King, Richard (2000) Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought. New Delhi: Maya Publishers PVT. LTD.




Raja, Kunhan C. (1974) Some Fundamental Problems in Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.






Related Topics for Further Investigation




Anubhava


Artha


Atman


Brhaspati Sutra


Brahman


Brahmin


Buddhism


Darshanas


Dharma 


Jainism


Kama


Pranama


Rgveda


Sruti


Varna






Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravaka




http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-97591/Carvaka




http://india_resource.tripod.com/scienceh.htm




http://www.orientalia.org/dictionary-Indian_Philosophy-definition22329-Carvaka+or+Lokayata.html




http://www.humanistictexts.org/carvaka.htm




http://www.swaveda.com/elibrary.php?id=17&action=show&type=book






Article written by Megan Gajdostik (March 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

	

	
	




	
	

				

			a) Kali
		

			
Origins of the Goddess Kali

		

			 		

	


		

		


Hindu mythology is among the most colourful, sensational, and extraordinary expressed. Hindu scriptures, such as the Puranas, contain stories about different gods and goddesses. The gods and goddesses of the Hindu scripture are still strongly worshiped in India at their designated temples. Of the many deities worshiped, the goddess Kali is quite different from the others. This goddess is described as having unruly black hair, a girdle of severed hands, a necklace of human heads, a lolling tongue dripping of blood, and is often depicted naked standing over her consort, Siva. Kali is worshiped as a symbol of destruction through time and also as a symbol of motherhood. 


 To understand this goddess’s role in Hindu worship it is necessary to examine the origin of Kali. In KALI: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar, the author, Elizabeth U. Harding explains the emergence of Kali. Harding explains that while the gods were resting, the demon king Mahisasura created an army and tried to proclaim himself as the ruler of Heaven. When Visnu, Siva, Brahma, and other powerful Gods heard of this they became angry and each shot forth a ray of light from their foreheads, which intensified and took the shape of a female form. “The light of Siva formed her face, Yama gave her hair and Visnu her arms. From the light of Candra, the moon God, her two breasts where formed. Indra modelled her waist and Varuna her thighs. Earth gave her hips and Brahma feet. The light from the fire God, Agni, fashioned her three eyes. Thus, all Gods contributed their power to manifest the auspicious Devi, the [Great] Mother Goddess” (ix). Each of the gods then adorned her with their weapons and sent her to battle King Mahisasura and his army. 


It is in The Devi Mahatyma that Devi, in the form of Kali, fiercely destroyed the army of demons with little struggle except for the demon Raktabija. Raktabija was nearly impossible to defeat because each drop of blood that touched the ground produced a replica of the demon. Kali raised Raktabija high into the air, lapped up his drops of falling blood, and swallowed him entirely. This is just one example of Kali’s great conquests. Kali appears for a second time in the The Devi Mahatyma during the battle between the demons Canda and Munda and Durga (i.e. Devi). When Durga sees the two demons approaching her with weapons, she becomes angry and Kali springs from her dark face. Kali decapitates the two demons and is victorious with just one swing of her sword.


Wangu expresses another example of her conquests from the appendix to the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa. In this myth, the God Visnu incarnates himself as Krsna in order to kill the demon Kamsa. Kali, Krsna’s sister, is asked to incarnate herself so the two of them can be exchanged at birth in order to fool Kamsa. Kali sacrifices herself to save Krsna and in return is given a conch and discus (two symbols of Visnu) and is promised blood worship. Kali also appears in the Ramayana when Rama is threatened by a horrible monster and is immobilized with fear. Sita takes the form of Kali and slaughters the monster single handedly (see Kinsley73).  


 Harding describes that the name Kali is derived from the word “kala,” meaning time. Both Kali and her consort Siva represent a link to destruction and thrive off of the existence of each other. While Siva is closely linked to creation, Kali acts as his counterpart in maintaining destruction,  and so their physical appearances are very opposite from each other. Siva is depicted as a fair skinned male and whose hair is done is a topknot. Kali on the other hand has black skinned female, with unruly matted hair, and is dominating Siva in almost all depictions of her.  Kinsley also explains that because Kali is the fierce form of Durga, she is rarely depicted as a submissive wife. Kali’s strong traits have set the characteristics for the group of Mahavidyas. The Mahavidyas are a group of tantric goddesses, who symbolize women characters that have complete independence. Of the Mahavidyas, Kali is a great exemplar of that independence. Kali dominates Siva, literally, by standing on top of his body, and often assuming the male’s position in tantric depictions (79).


  Kali is also considered the ideal Mahavidya because of her relation to the “ultimate truth” (see Kinsley 84-86). Worshipers of Kali are devoted to the Black Goddess because of her relation with the end of events. The entire Hindu religion is based on the hopes of achieving liberation, and Kali is a direct symbol of that liberation. Kinsley describes the devotion of Kali as the devotion to achieving Brahman. In Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas, Kinsley calls her “She Who is Knowledge of the Self, She Who is Knowledge of Brahman, She Whose Form Is the Highest Brahman, and Mistress of the Mahavidyas.” (86). Devotees of Kali desire this knowledge of Brahman and dedicate their worship to the goddess of motherhood. 


 In Freedom from Death in the Worship of Kali, Kinsley explains that devotees of Kali can be found making blood sacrifices to the goddess throughout temples in India. The goddess is largely worshiped in Bengal and is a popular icon of worship because of her association with Siva, her relation to Vamacara tantra, and her promotion through devoted poet-saints of Bengali (188-189). The dark goddess was not accepted as a widely worshiped deity until quite some time after the Devi-mahatmya was written. Before Kali became a widely worshiped deity she was mostly adored by thieves or outcast cults of Hindu society. It was not until Kali became recognized as the consort of Siva and his incarnations that she gained a growing population of devotees. She is depicted as the fiercest form of Durga, a symbol of feminism and true knowledge in which Hindus praise in hopes of obtaining moksa. 


Works Cited


Harding, Elizabeth U.( 1993) Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar. New Delhi: Shri Jainendra Press………………………………………………………


Kinsley, David (1975) “Freedom from Death in the Worship of Kali.” Numen 22, no.3 (December): 183-207.


Kinsley, David (1997) Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas. California: U of California Press. ………………………………………………


Wangu, Madhu Bazaz (2003) Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings,.and Models. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications………………………


 


Related Topics for Further Investigation


Durga

Devi

Siva

Durga Puja

Brahman

Indra

Visnu

Ten Mahavidyas

Tantra

The Devi Mahatmya

Kamsa

Brahma

Krsna

Mahabharata 

Ramayana






Noteworthy Websites Related to the Topic


http://www.sanatansociety.org/hindu_gods_and_goddesses/kali.htm


http://www.dollsofindia.com/kali.htm


http://www.goddess.ws/kali.html


http://www.crock11.freeserve.co.uk/ramay.htm


http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81l%C4%AB


http://www.mantraonnet.com/kali-text-images.html


 


Written by Sarah French (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

	

	
	




	
	

				

			1. Hinduism and Ecology
		

			
Environmental Ethics

		

			 		

	


		

		
 


Since the beginning, humanity has been nourished by the various elements that constitute nature. However, use of the diverse renewable and non-renewable resources at our disposal, such as water, soil, fossil fuels, and metals, have not until quite recently translated into the abuse of our environment (Freedman 192,194-195,267-270). Due to the reality that our earth is, for the most part, a closed system, we must come to terms with the fact that sustainability is the means to a continued survival (Freedman 192). The current issues concerning our one and only planet are attributed mainly to those of the biosphere, global warming, waste, pollution, overpopulation, and nuclear proliferation (Crawford 168). Developing countries today are center stage for big industry, and when combined with high population density, immediate and distant habitats frequently take on an increased amount of debasement (Freedman 14-15). For this reason, countries such as India and China are some of the global leaders in reference to environmental degradation (Freedman 15). Granted the prevalence of Hinduism in current day India, it could perhaps be beneficial to instigate an analysis of these religious views in order to adopt a suitable approach for assisting in sustainable development. This paper will not only attempt to cultivate awareness of how common Hindu ideologies have contributed to greater environmental stress, but will also offer insight into how various Hindu views and practices could potentially assist the developed world in its struggle to preserve this planet.


 The seemingly new concerns with, and increasing proximity to the environment that tend to be arising these days are not necessarily fresh in the minds of most Hindus. Notions of interdependence and connectivity with nature are said to stem nearly 3000 years back to pre-Aryan religion in the Indus Valley Civilization. [For more information of the Indus Valley Civilization, see (Rodrigues 8-12)]. Though there is no explicit literature to evidence these claims, archaeologists have unearthed a variety of artifacts that are substantially indicative of our assumptions. These relics include animal figurines of terracotta, “proto-Siva” models bearing horned headdresses and surrounded by plants and animals, and depictions of women surrounded and interwoven with trees (Rodrigues 11). As the Vedic age came to be, beginning at around 1500 BCE and lasting until around 600 BCE, religion in India, although undergoing some drastic changes, continued to value the relationship between humanity and nature. Animals were regarded so highly with the Dravidians that wild creatures symbolized many of their gods (Crawford 169). Deities such as Usas (god of the dawn) and Aranyi (goddess of the forest) emerged and, due to yajna, were perceived in terms of having a mutualistic existence with humans (Crawford 170). [For more on yajna, see (Rodrigues 28-33)]. In addition to this, various hymns to the goddess Prthivi(goddess of the earth) in the Rg Veda develop on the sophisticated ideas of environmental sustainability (Crawford 171).[For more on Rg Veda, see (Rodrigues 25,37,48-49,55,57,180)]. The notion of rta was another significant concept born of the Vedic age. This view entailed the belief that ethical order be combined with the elements of an existing physical and natural order (Crawford 170). By extension, rta was characterized not only by the laws of gravity and the rhythmic beat of a heart, but also by personal development, and therefore proper human agency. Although originating in a very distant past, these roots of modern Hinduism are essential to understanding the views presented and lived by nearly a billion people residing in India today.


 When it comes to the problem of biodiversity, one usually does not immediately conjure thoughts of negative connotation. However, the truth is that human beings everywhere are carelessly decimating other forms of life at an unprecedented rate. According to Crawford, our race will push 100 species of plants and animals into extinction every day for the next 30 years (184). Unlike western civilization, Hinduism does not discriminate against life on the basis of its size or attractiveness. According to Hindu philosophy, the tiniest insects have as much of an inherent right to exist as an elephant or a whale. When any type of organism disappears, so does our ability to learn from that creature, as its genome is lost forever (Crawford 184). Hinduism criticizes the lack of ahimsa(the avoidance of violence) due to economic greed. The common excuse that protecting the environment will result in the loss of employment is fictitious, in that artha(wealth/skill) and dharma(righteousness) can thrive interdependently (Crawford 186). With the case of overpopulated third world countries, in which poverty is rampant, many believe that the resources to worry about non-human life are not available. However, in Hindu perspective, even these countries need to be aware and acquainted with the long-term results of their current economic activity (Crawford 185). Consider the following quote from the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad:


 “…In so far as beasts and birds, even to the ants find a living in his


 houses he becomes their world. Verily, as one wishes non-injury for 


 his own world, so all beings wish non-injury for him who has this


 knowledge. This, indeed, is known and well investigated.” (Nelson 52).


This philosophical view points clearly to the interdependence that humanity has always shared with nature. 


 


 People everywhere are talking about global warming. The whisper of climate change that began several years ago is quickly becoming a desperate cry for a reversal in trends. Leaders from around the world are meeting to try and figure out what can be done about the 37% increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide since the industrial revolution (Freedman 316-318). Even before this epidemic, Hinduism went to great lengths to ensure sanctity of trees, which are one of the best means by which carbon can be reabsorbed from the atmosphere (Freedman 324). Manu(i.e. Laws of Manu[see (Rodrigues 57-58)]) spoke elaborately about how plants and trees can feel comfort and despair, and believed that they were beings of sentience (Crawford 189). Through this, planting trees became a dharmic act, and certain laws were even set in place to punish those for harming trees of various importance to nature and society (Crawford 190). Forests were seen as being appropriate places for ascetics and renouncers to practice their ways, mainly because the forest could fulfill both spiritual and bodily requirements (Crawford 189). However, although Hindus are theoretically meant to ask permission to the tree before taking its life, whether or not they do is trivial when looking at the bigger picture. Big industry across the globe is the number one producer of these destructive emissions. Many people perceive countries such as India and China to be the first in the ranks for pollution. Be that as it may, despite the fact that India consumed nearly double the energy of Canada in 2001, Canada’s per capita rate was nearly 18 times that of India (Freedman 15). Has the issue become one of overpopulation, or unacceptable standards of living? 


 In society’s linear structure model of its relationship with the environment, raw resources are brought in, and waste is pushed out. Certain elements are cyclical, such as water and forestry, however all aspects of what enters must be replaced, in order to sustain our living conditions (Freedman 204-206, 524). In New Delhi, although 3,880 tons of garbage are produced each day, 1,460 tons are left ignored on the city streets (Nelson 200). This is due to a social tendency that constitutes pushing these impurities away from oneself. Garbage follows a trail from home to street, then from the localized streets it is dumped on the periphery of the neighborhood, and it finally accumulates across the urban border (Nelson 202). According to Hindu ethics, not only is it wrong to produce lavish amounts of waste without considering the consequences, but it is also needless to revert back to the days of subsistence living (Crawford 192). In order to maintain our current economic activities, as Crawford explains, the Hindu believes that we must embrace the ways of recycling and restraint (192). On the other hand, Nelson argues that the issue of garbage in India is caused by a religious twist that is distinguished by prevailing tradition (201). Due to the religious framework displayed in particular by the caste system, recycling is done at the cost of social status. Brahminical literature (Brahmins are the top class in Hindu social organization) elaborates on the fact that dirt, and by extension garbage, risks putting the individual in a state of impurity, which affects one’s ability to worship the gods (Nelson 206). Therefore, the low status members of society such as the sudras(servant class) and the “untouchables” must handle this waste. It has been evidenced that loss of status has even been expressed towards those of brahminical descent exploiting this industry. Nelson argues that in order for India to rise above this destructive disposition, we must somehow find away to increase the status of the recycled object (207).


 The problem of population in itself is not really an issue, though as population increases, it amplifies the complications of waste, global warming, and resource consumption. Studies show that the population of India will overtake that of China by 2030, simply due to current rates of increase (Crawford 194). The reason for this exponential rate of increase in India is attributed to three factors, the first of which being that it is considered dharmic to produce a large family unit. These perceptions undoubtedly stem from the Vedic years during which there was not only a great deal of agricultural activity, but a higher death rate due to warfare and infant mortality (Crawford 195). The second reason for such high birth rates relates to how women are perceived in Hindu society. Of the five elements of marriage, the wife’s role has grown increasingly in the direction of prajati, or parenthood. Rather than focusing on sakhya (companionship between two individuals), a woman’s foremost purpose in marriage is to bear many children (Crawford 197). Thirdly, such high population in India is a consequence of the principle of sraddha(funeral ceremony), and its requirement of a male to properly worship dead ancestors (Crawford 197-198). Manu also devalues female birth in his writings, not directly, but rather by putting great emphasis on the importance of having sons (Crawford 197). Although these are ancient traditions,it seems contradictive for a religion that considers all life as equal to go to such lengths to exalt one sex over another. As Crawford states: “…yesterday’s dharma is today’s adharma(non-righteousness)” (195).


 


While the west is encountering problems of waste and pollution due to overconsumption and prosperity, India is facing the same troubles due to overpopulation and severe poverty. We learn from Hinduism that the concepts of karma(Rodrigues 50-51,57), interconnectedness, and interdependence are the basis of respecting the other forms of life that surround us (Crawford 176-183). One may also contemplate the view ofBrahman; how the application of this premise suggests that distancing of oneself from nature is ignorant (Crawford 201). [For more on brahman, see (Rodrigues 36-37)]. Finally, it has been ascertained that certain traditional philosophies in Hinduism may no longer be helpful in establishing a sustainable world for humanity. These include ideals such as those that parallel value with large families (Crawford 195), as well as those that view the community’s recyclers as impure or objectionable (Nelson 1980).



 


References and Further Recommended Reading


Crawford, S. Cromwell (1995) Dilemmas of life and death: Hindu ethics in a North American  Context. Albany: State University of New York Press.


Nelson, Lance E. (1998) Purifying the Earthly Body of God: Religion and Ecology in Hindu  India. Albany: State University of New York.


Freedman, Bill (2007) Environmental Science: A Canadian Perspective: Fourth Edition.  Toronto: Pearson Canada Inc.


Koli, P.A. (2005) Economic Development and Environmental Issues. New Delhi: Serials  Publications.


Haberman, David L. (2006) River of Love in an Age of Pollution: The Yamuna River of Northern  India. Los Angeles: University of California Press.


Rodrigues, Hillary P. (2006) Introducing Hinduism. New York and London: Routledge.


 


Related Topics For Further Investigation


 


Sraddha


Dharma


Karma


Brahman 


Global Warming


Laws of Manu 


Prthivi


Aranyi


Yajna


Usas 


Sustainable Development


 


Related Websites


http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/ic/wssd/doc4/consul_book_persp.pdf


http://www.ibef.org/india/sustainabledevelopment.aspx


http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/india/


 


Written by Thomas Fox (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.

	

	
	




	
	

				

			2. Marriage (Vivaha)
		

			
Arranged Marriage

		

			 		

	


		

		
In the Hindu tradition arranged marriage is the most prevalent form of marriage. Rather than a man or woman seeking a relationship with a partner, family members, kin or community elders will select a mate based on particular criteria and the couple will enter into a marriage. Mate selection is not taken lightly; it requires a certain amount of expertise and can take anywhere from six months to over three years to successfully arrange a marriage (Dhruvarajan 36). Although some may think that this is an ancient or outdated practice, the majority of marriages in India are still arranged, even among the educated middle class population of modern India (Medora, Larson & Dave 414).


In Hindu society, marriage is not only a union between two individuals; it is also the joining together of two families. The primary importance of a marriage is the sharing of common goals among families rather than merely achieving personal happiness (Hamon & Ingoldsby 214). Marriage in Hindu tradition is not only a ritual celebration but a religious, economic, political and social event for both the couple being married as well as their family and community (Mullati 18).


India is a collectivist culture in which emphasis is placed on the needs and goals of a group, particularly the family and extended family, rather than on the individual. In Hindu tradition the extended family system is considered to be the most essential institution and it thereby defines the social norms and values (Hamon & Ingoldsby 211). Due to the nature of collectivism there is greater emphasis placed on the needs of the family as a unit. Arranged marriages have the potential to benefit one’s family and therefore it is one’s duty to allow their family members to select a mate for them. In comparison, western cultures are individualistic and place a larger priority on individual happiness and success. In individualistic cultures love and romance are considered to be of vital importance when choosing a marriage partner (Hamon & Ingoldsby 213), whereas among Hindus, intense emotional affection can be viewed as threatening the structure of the family (Levine, Sato, Hashimoto & Verma 3).


In Hindu tradition, love and romance are not considered prerequisites for marriage. In fact, love is often considered a weak foundation for marriage and is expected to develop after marriage takes place (Hamon & Ingoldsby 213). Many Hindus believe that feelings of love or romantic attraction can overtake more appropriate traits in a spouse and hinder the traditional purpose of arranged marriage (Hamon & Ingoldsby 213). In arranged marriage dating is not considered to be a necessary step, however feelings toward this may be changing among modern Hindus.


In mate selection there are many factors to be considered and potential partners are carefully screened to ensure compatibility. Family ideals, values, history, and background are assessed as well as social, educational and economic statuses to ensure they are compatible with one’s own (Hamon & Ingoldsby 215, Mullatti 19). Religious and caste endogamy are also considered to be vital factors (Mullatti 18). In Hindu tradition, individuals believe that their marriage partner is predestined (Gupta 77). Many Hindu families will consult an astrologer to ensure that prospective partners are indeed compatible. The astrologer will match the partners’ horoscopes and predict important aspects such as financial success and future children (Hamon & Ingoldsby 218).


The most important consideration in a Hindu marriage is caste endogamy, in which members belonging to a certain caste marries within that caste (Hamon & Ingoldsby 214). Following traditional endogamous rules, a girl’s family status may be improved if she marries a boy of a higher sub-caste; such a match is known as Anuloma. However, Pratiloma matches, which refers to a girl marrying a boy of lower sub-caste, are considered taboo (Mullatti 19). To marry outside of one’s caste or religion is often still considered taboo, however the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 legalized inter-religion and inter-caste marriages (Mullatti 18).


 Most young Indian adults prefer arranged marriage because they believe that their elders have more wisdom and knowledge than they do, and therefore are better equipped to select prospective mates. It is believed that choosing a spouse is a significant issue, which is better left to more responsible members of the extended family (Gupta 77). In modern Hindu society there is an increasing trend to consult the young adults and obtain input regarding their prospective mates, this trend is leading to marriages that are semi-arranged (Hamon & Ingoldsby 216).


 The influence of western media (movies, television, Internet, etc.), widespread education, urbanization and technological progress has resulted in transformations among youth in modern India regarding their values, ideals, attitudes, beliefs and perceptions. These influences have caused many young people to desire greater freedom and independence to express themselves and make their own decisions, including the decision of whom they marry (Hamon & Ingoldsby 219). A minority of Indian youth who are influenced by western ideals are opting to select their own marriage partners and are therefore choosing to be in love marriages, against the approval of their parents. 


 In order to find the perfect mate, the use of matrimonial advertisements is becoming increasingly popular, so much so that they are becoming routine in major Indian newspapers (Hamon & Ingoldsby 216). As respondents reply to these advertisements the pool of prospective partners are narrowed down and the young adults may meet, talk on the phone and occasionally go on a chaperoned date. After a few encounters the man typically proposes to the woman. If the woman accepts the proposal the extended families are informed of their decision to marry (Hamon & Ingoldsby 217). 


 Arranged marriages have been prominent throughout Hindu tradition and continue to be prevalent in modern times. A marriage that is arranged by one’s family and elders in the community is not based on love; rather it is based on the needs of the family as a collective unit. Great consideration is put into the pairing of individuals to allow for the best possible union for both the couple being married and the extended family. Although attitudes may be shifting somewhat, modern Hindu young adults still prefer arranged marriages, as they feel that they do not possess the necessary knowledge and wisdom to choose their own mate. The attitude change that has occurred has allowed young adults to be consulted regarding their potential partners and allowed them more control over their final marriage partner.



 


REFERENCES AND FURTHER RECOMMENDED READING


 


Dhruvarajan, V. (1989) Hindu women & the power of ideology. Granby, Massachusetts: Bergin & Garvey Publishers Inc.


Gupta, G. R. (1976) Love, arranged marriage, and the Indian social structure. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 7, 75-85.


Hamon, R. R., & Ingoldsby, B. B. (Eds.) (2003) Mate selection across cultures. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Inc.


Levine, R., Sato, S., Hashimoto, S., and Verma, J. (1995) Love and marriage in eleven cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26, 554-571.


Medora, N.P., Larson, J.H., & Dave, P.B. (2000) East-Indian college student’s perceptions of family strength. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 31, 407-425.


Mullatti, L. (1995) Families in India: Beliefs and realities. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 26, 11-25.


 


Related Topics For Further Investigation


 


Hypergamy 


Samskaras


Vivaha


Hindu Marriage Act of 1955


Brahma


Daiva


Arsa


Prajapatya


Asura


Gandharva


Raksasa


Paisaca


Dowry System


 


 


Noteworthy Websites Related To The Topic


http://www.kamat.com/indica/culture/sub-cultures/arranged_marriage.htm


 


http://weddings.iloveindia.com/features/arranged-marriages.html


 


http://www.aryashaadi.com/UserArticle/Article/love_vs_arranged.aspx


 


http://www.indianetzone.com/2/classification_marriages.htm


 


http://www.pardesiservices.com/tradition/arrangedmarg.asp


 


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arranged_marriage


 


 


Written by Lisa Foster (Spring 2008) who is solely responsible for its content.